Cancer Nanomedicine: A Review of Recent Success in Drug Delivery System

Abstract

Generally nanoparticles size ranges from 1 to 100 nm with one (or) further confines. Generally nanoparticles classified into inorganic, organic and patches grounded on carbon in nanometric scale that has parcels bettered compared to larger size of separate accoutrements .They show parcels which are enhanced similar as strength, perceptivity, high reactivity, stability, face areaetc., due to their lower size. They were synthesized by colorful styles for exploration and marketable uses which are classified into three types- chemical, physical and mechanical processes which had sawn a vast enhancement. Nanoparticles have unique natural parcels given their small size and large face area- to- volume rate, which allows them to bind, absorb, and carry composites similar as small patch medicines, DNA, RNA, proteins, and examinations with high effectiveness. Their tunable size, shape, and face characteristics also enable them to have high stability, high carrier capacity, the capability to incorporate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances and comity with different administration routes, thereby making them largely seductive in numerous aspects of oncology. Targeting nanoparticles to cancers for bettered remedial efficacity and dropped side goods remains a popular conception in the once decades. Although the enhanced permeability and retention effect serves as a crucial explanation for all the presently capitalized nanoformulations.

Introduction

Ii. INTRODUCTION

Cancer is a disease caused when cells divide uncontrollably and spread into surrounding tissues. Cancer is caused by changes to DNA. Most cancer-causing DNA changes occur in sections of DNA called genes. These changes are also called genetic changes. Cancers are usually named using -carcinoma, -sarcoma or -blastoma as a suffix, with the Latin or Greek word for the organ or tissue of origin as the root.

A. Classification of Cancer

• Carcinoma
• Sarcoma
• Myeloma
• Leukemia
• Lymphoma

1. Carcinoma: Carcinoma referstoa malignant neoplasm  of epithelial origin or cancer of the internal or external lining of the body. Carcinomas, malignancies of epithelial tissue, account for 80 to 90 percent of all cancer cases. Most carcinomas affect organs or glands capable of secretion, such as the breasts, which produce milk, or the lungs, which secrete mucus, or colon or prostate or bladder.
2. Sarcoma: Sarcoma refers to cancer that originates in supportive and connective tissues such as bones, tendons, cartilage, muscle, and fat. Generally occurring in young adults, the most common sarcoma often develops as a painful mass on the bone. Sarcoma tumors usually resemble the tissue in which they grow.
3. Myeloma: Myeloma is cancer that originates in the plasma cells of bone marrow. The plasma cells produce some of the proteins found in blood.
4. Leukemia: leukemia affects red blood cells and can cause poor blood clotting and fatigue due to anemia. Lymphomas develop in the glands or nodes of the lymphatic system, a network of vessels, nodes, and organs (specifically the spleen, tonsils, and thymus) that purify bodily fluids and produce infection-fighting white blood cells, or lymphocytes. (1)

B. Nanomedicine

1. Liposome-Based: Liposome- Grounded Made from cholesterol and other natural or synthetic phospholipids, liposomes are one of the most commercially successful nano- medicine delivery platforms. Both oral delivery and injection styles are applicable in the case of liposome- grounded medicine delivery systems. FDA- approved intravenous injection is a primary route of administration for colorful medicines. either, subcutaneous, intradermal, intraperitoneal, and intramuscular administrations are also available. The medium of liposome medicine delivery action relies on the accumulation, uptake, and release of medicines. The relations with medicine and excrescence spots be via unresistant and active targeting. Passive targeting substantially uses the enhanced permeability and retention effect observed in excrescence microenvironments to ameliorate the retention of liposomes at the excrescence spots still, active targeting by face functionalization has bettered the medicine- targeting capability of liposomes. (2)
2. Conjugate-based: Polymer-drug conjugates (PDCs) are drug loaded polymeric nanoparticles in which the bioactive molecule (drug, protein, peptides, hormones, enzymes, growth factors etc.) is covalently attached to a water-soluble polymer backbone through a physiologically labile bond to protect the bioactive molecule from premature degradation providing longer systemic circulation time as well as enhancing absorption and bioavailability (3)
3. Polymer –based: Polymeric and lipid- grounded nanoparticles( NPs) are arising as protean tools for CNS medicine delivery, as they are biocompatible and biodegradable, access natural membranes, synopsize both hydrophobic and hydrophilic medicines, and also give medicine protection and controlled release.(4)

C. Personalized Nanomedicine

Bridge this translational gap, we then propose" substantiated nanomedicine" as a novel, rational, and relatively straightforward conception for marking excrescence- targeted chemotherapeutic interventions. As instanced by upon labeling nanomedicine phrasings with contrastagents, the first step toward substantiated nanomedicine treatment is to preselect cases on the base of noninvasiveimaging perceptivity on target point accumulation. also, patient spresenting with moderate to high situations of target point accumulation are treated with the image- guided nanomedicine formulation in question, whereas those cases who do notare either allocated to conventional chemotherapy or to another experimental intervention. latterly, duringthe alternate personalization step, preselected and nano medicine- treated cases are nearly covered during followup to noninvasively fantasize how well they respond to thefirst 1 to 3 cycles of treatment. During this process, by meansof nonstop input from noninvasive imaging and repetition, medicine boluses and dosing rules can be acclimated, andpatients can be allocated to other( nano)- remedial interventions, if necessary. Clinical case studies furnishing evidence- of- principle for personalized nanomedicine treatment are depicted in polymer – medicine conjugate( i.e., PK2; galactosamine- modified pHPMA- GFLG- doxorubicin; targeted to the asialoglycoprotein receptor, which is overexpressed by hepatocytes), convincingly showing effective target point localization.

More detailed molecular imaging of the target point accumulation of PK2 using single photon emigration CT(SPECT.2B), still, coupled to anatomical CT imaging of the hepatocellular melanoma( HCC) in question showed that this targeted nanomedicine expression primarily localized to healthy liver towel, and not to the tumor. This observation likely explains why PK2 was set up to berelatively ineffective for treating HCC, with clear- cut responses only observable in 3 of 31 cases. (5)

D. Types of Nanocarriers

1. Lipid-Based Nanocarriers: Lipid- grounded nanocarriers( LNs) are generally non-spherical in shape, which is either determined by the electrostatic commerce between polar/ ionogenic phospholipid head and the detergent or due tonon-polar lipid hydrocarbon halves present in thesolvent.The unique physicochemical parcels of LNs which in the form of liposomes or solid core lipid nanoparticles with excellent biocompatibility makes them campaigners as carriers for medicines and food operation. These LNs made of invariant lipid bilayers or solid cores can entrap colorful cytotoxic medicines. Hydrophilic medicine will be trapped in the waterless region, while the lipophilic medicine will be captured in the lipid circulars. also, LNs carry medicines safely to the destination- excrescence point, release it in a gradational manner, and are also degraded. lately, exploration on lipid- grounded nanomaterials is blooming and main orders, including liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles( SLNs), and nanostructured lipid carriers( NLCs) and nanoemulsions, have been entering great attention in current exploration and clinical trials. (6)
2. Liposomes: Liposomes, the first phospholipid vesicle system developed in the 1960s.Tare composed of phospholipid bilayer analogous to the tube membrane of mortal cells. thus, liposomes have good biocompatibility and can promote medicine prolixity across the tube membrane. Liposomes can be designed as tone- assembled vesicles comprising one or multiple concentric lipid bilayers that enclose an waterless core. Liposomes, ranged from 20 nm to further than 1µm, have the typical structure synopsize with a hydrophobic bilayer and a hydrophilic core. thus, liposomes can hold and stabilize hydrophilic medicines in the hydrophilic core and synopsize lipophilic medicines in lipid bilayer. thus, liposomes have good capability to carry both hydrophilic and hydrophobic medicines in the waterless lumen and lipid bilayer, independently, which contributing to the versatility of liposomes. In addition, liposome system also has the advantages of easy revision and targeting eventuality, which could be constructed with the face modified with appropriated motes( or ligands) to laboriously bind a target patch of certain cells, system, or towel.

Since Doxil R was approved by the FDA in 1995 as the first long- circulating liposome for cancer treatment, numerous chemicals have also been reported to be suitable to synopsize liposomes. still, due to the limited bilayer space of liposomes, it's delicate to achieve high medicine lading of hydrophobic medicines. It's necessary to strike a delicate balance between high medicine lading and flyspeck size distribution and stability of liposomes. To more ameliorate clinical restatement, farther exploration is demanded for targeted medicine delivery by nanocarriers to reduce toxin, enhance permeability and retention goods, and minimize the shielding effect of protein nimbus. (7,8,9,10,11,)

3. Solid-lipid Nanoparticles (SLN): Solid- lipid nanoparticles were developed in the 1990s in order to combine the advantages of polymer nanocarriers, similar as strong medicine lading capacity, controllable medicine delivery, good biocompatibility of lipid mixes and enhancement of medicine bioavailability. SLN can be prepared by a variety of technologies including heat or cold homogenization, which is easy to gauge up product, has good medication repetition and doesn't bear poisonous organic detergents in the medication process. The main point of SLN is that it contains lipids that remain solid at room temperature. Biocompatible substances similar as triglycerides, adipose acids, steroids and biowaxes are frequently used to prepare SLN systems. Due to their small sizes and large face area, SLN are suitable to be covered with functionalized ligands halves, antibody and other functional group. SLNs can be orally administered as waterless dissipations or in the lozenge forms of capsules, tablets, and bullets. Among the different types of nanocarriers, SLN are at the van of the implicit operation in oral medicine delivery systems. SLN have numerous advantages like easy manufacturing, the stability of medicinals, increased medicine content, effective release of medicine and high long- term stability. also In terms of medicine delivery, SLN system can efficiently synopsize antitumor medicines and other substances with poor water- solubility due to its high lipid content. (12,13,14,15,16)

4. Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs)

NLCs are alternate- generation lipid nanoparticles developed to palliate the  downsides of SLNs,  similar as poor  medicine  lading capacity, polymorphic transitions, lipid crystallization with time, and  medicine leakage during  storehouse. Generally, NLCs  correspond of solid and liquid lipids, surfactants, and other  factors, includingco-surfactants andcounter-ions. The solid lipid matrix is immersed in a liquid lipid phase. The  objectification of liquid lipids causes the  revision of the solid lipid matrix from a  largely ordered crystalline phase to an amiss crystalline chassis, which improves  medicine ladingand prevents medicine leakage. (17)

E. Benefits of Nanotechnology for Cancer

Ultramodern drug has significantly bettered issues in cancer operation, still the complaint still causes over 600,000 deaths in the United States every time. While cancer treatments have advanced significantly, the need to increase their particularity and reduce systemic toxin remains a challenge. As illustrated in the illustration below, nanotechnology presents occasion to enhance earlier opinion through in vitro assays, enhance imaging capabilities for opinion and treatment monitoring, and ameliorate remedial issues by refining targeting  perfection, accelerating localized  medicine  efficacity, and minimizing systemic  toxin.(18)

F. Nanoparticle Technologies

Nanoparticle Technologies   The first nanoscale  medicine delivery systems were lipid vesicles, which were first described in the 1960s and  latterly came known as liposomes Since  also, there have been several  crucial developments that have paved the way for current nanoparticle technologies. In 1976, the first controlled- release polymer systems for the delivery of macromolecules were demonstrated( Langer and Folkman 1976). This was followed in 1980 with the first  operation of targeted liposomes( Heath etal. 1980; Leserman etal. 1980). The  face  revision of liposomes and polymeric nanoparticles with polyethylene glycol( cut) in 1990 and 1994, independently, led to increases in rotation time, or “  covert ” property These developments  crowned in the  blessing of Doxil( James 1995a, b), a vesicle delivery system  recapitulating doxorubicin that has proven to be a potent treatment for multiple types of cancer Polymeric Nanoparticles Dendrimer Polymeric Micelle Polymer- Drug Conjugate Polymerosome Liposome Inorganic( Iron, silica, or amount  fleck core) Protein Carriers Biological Nanoparticles Hybrid Nanoparticles Hydrophobic Polymer Hydrophilic Polymer Lipid remedial cargo Targeting Ligand Nanoparticle platforms for  medicine delivery. Nanoparticle platforms are characterized by their physicochemical structures, including polymer medicine conjugates, lipid- grounded nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, protein- grounded nanoparticles, natural nanoparticles, and mongrel nanoparticles Nanoparticle Technologies for Cancer Therapy.

1. Liposome Nanoparticles: Lipids form nanoparticle vesicles through the tone- assembly of amphiphilic lipids and excipients. The lipids form a bilayer grounded on hydrophobic relations in nonstop parallel quilting, with the hydrophilic head groups deposited towards the waterless terrain. Hydrophilic motes can be reprised in the inner waterless phase while hydrophobic motes can be carried in the hydrophobic disciplines of the lipid bilayer. Physicochemical parcels of liposomes can be precisely changed to control face charge, functionality, and size by simply mixing commercially available lipid motes. This offers a significant advantage over other carriers that bear much more controlled conflation way and fresh chemical variations. Generally, lipids used to prepare vesicular phrasings are set up in the mortal body and approved by the FDA, similar as DSPE(1,2- distearoylsn- glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine), HSPC( hydrogenated phosphatidylcholine from soybean lecithin), EggPG( egg  thralldom  phosphatidylglycerol) and DSPC( 1,2- distearoyl- glycero-3-phosphocholine). Each of these lipids can be attained with or without cut, which can be used to modify theface of the performing liposome. (19)

2. Polymeric Nanoparticle: Polymeric NPs formed from biocompatible and biodegradable polymers have been considerably delved as remedial carriers.11 Polymeric NPs are formulated through block copolymers of differently drophobicity.  These copolymers spontaneously assemble into a core- shell micelle conformation in an waterless terrain. Polymeric NPs have been formulated to synopsize hydrophilic and/ or hydrophobic small medicine motes, as well proteins and nucleic acid macromolecules. The NP design can allow for slow and controlled release of  medicine at target  spots. Polymeric NPs are generally suitable to ameliorate the safety and  efficacity of the  medicines they carry. Functionalizing polymeric NPs with targeting ligands for  bettered  medicine delivery has been an important area of  disquisition since polymeric NPs are unique in their capability to be  acclimatized  previous to  flyspeck assembly. The  objectification of targeting ligands on the NPs can lead to their increased uptake along with their  weight, leading to enhanced  remedial outcomes. Another type of polymeric NP is dendrimers. Dendrimers are regularly fanned  macromolecules made from synthetic or natural  rudiments including amino acids, sugars, and nucleotides. They've a central core, interior layers of branches, and an  surface  face.(20)

3. Albumin-bound Nanoparticle: Albumin- bound NPs( nab) uses the endogenous albumin pathways to carry hydrophobic  motes in the bloodstream. Albumin naturally binds to the hydrophobic  motes with non-covalent reversible list, avoiding detergent- grounded  venom fortherapeutics. As a result, this platform has been successfully acclimated as  medicine delivery vehicle. Abraxane, a 130- nm nab paclitaxel was approved by the FDA in 2005 for the treatment of metastatic  bone cancer. Abraxane concentrates in cells through albumin receptor( gp60)-  intermediated transport in endothelial cells. It may also target the albumin- binding protein SPARC( buried protein acidic and rich in cysteine), which is overexpressed in certain excrescences. farther understanding of the medium of action may lead to better targeting and development of  new  rectifiers using the nab platform (21.22,23)

4. Iron Oxide Nanoparticle: Forceful oxide NPs are extensively studied as a  unresistant and active targeting imaging agent as they're  substantially superparamagnetic. The superparamagnetic iron oxide NP (SPION) generally have an iron oxide core with a hydrophilic fleece of dextran or other biocompatible  emulsion to increase their stability. The most extensively used SPIONs correspond of a magnetite( Fe3O4) and/ or maghemite( γFe2O3) core. These NPs   glamorous  field. SPIONs have been successfully used as T2-  ladened  glamorous  resonance( MR)  discrepancy agents to track and cover cells. SPIONs have several advantages over conventional gadolinium- chelate  discrepancy agents including  dropped  toxin and increased imaging  perceptivity and  particularity .(24.25.26,27)

5. Gold Nanoparticle: Gold nanoparticle Gold NPs offer numerous size- and- shape dependent  optic and chemical  parcels, biocompatibility, and facile  face modification. Gold NPs can  explosively enhance  optic processes  similar as light  immersion, scattering,  luminescence, and  face- enhanced Raman scattering( SERS) due to the unique commerce of the free electrons in the NP with light. These  parcels have enabled the  consummation of gold NPs in  numerous  operations  similar as biochemical  seeing and discovery,  natural imaging, diagnostics, and  remedial  operations. seeing  ways include the use of gold NPs in colorimetric arrays and the use of gold NPs as substrates in SERS to significantly enhance Raman scattering, allowing for spectroscopic discovery and identification of proteins and single  motes at the NP  face Gold NP  examinations have also been used to  descry heart  complaint and cancer biomarkers. They can also  transfigure absorbed light into heat and  thus, have high  eventuality for infrared phototherapy. (28.29.30,31,32,33)

G. Nanoparticles to Study Biological Processes

Nanoparticles to study  natural processes  The unique  parcels of NPs have enabled their use as promising tools to study  natural processes. numerous innovative  ways using NPs are being developed to  spark cell signaling pathways, to induce protein  product, and to ameliorate upon current  ways used in molecular and cellular biology  exploration. NPs  similar as QDs have been  considerably studied for  numerous  natural  operations that use  luminescence. Some of its uses include immunostaining of fixed cells and apkins, membrane proteins and cytoskeleton  fibers lately, QDs have also been used to  fantasize the molecular dynamics of individual  motes in live cells. One group  imaged EGF- bound receptor movements by tagging a small bit of individual EGFR  motes with a conjugate of one CdSe QD linked to oneanti-EGFR antibody Fab  scrap( antiEGFR – Fab). The individual antiEGFR – Fab- QD- bound EGFRs( EGFR – Fab- QD) were  also  imaged by total internal reflection  luminescence microscopy. 

NP platforms can also enable the original  anxiety of protein conditioning in cells at a subcellular scale. In particular,  glamorous  NPs can be  carpeted with a biocompatible  face subcaste that can be functionalized with ligands that target specific cell-  face receptors, which  also can be actuated ever by applied  glamorous  fields. In a recent study, investigators used this approach to study how NP  intermediated activation of specific signaling pathways can lead to changes in cellular responses. The  glamorous  NPs are attached with active signaling proteins, and can be displaced by  glamorous  forces into different  locales of the cell. Once these protein- conjugated NPs are  fitted  into the cells, they bind  mate proteins to their  shells and locally stimulate signal transduction pathways. This strategy was applied to members of the Rho- GTPases, a set of molecular switches known to regulate cell morphology.

NP  intermediated Rac1 signal was  set up to induce actin polymerization in  intrusive areas of cells while no NP  convinced actin polymerization was observed in the other areas of the cell, suggesting that Rac1 associates with another  mate to polymerize actin in the regions of high membrane  exertion. The investigators demonstrated that the NP-  intermediated activation of signaling pathways could also lead to a original  revision of cellular morphology and  redoing of the actin cytoskeleton. therefore, the strategies used in this study could be used to enhance understanding of how other biomolecules are spatially modulated and integrated at the cellular  position.(34.35)

H. Mechanism of Targeting by nano Drug Vehicles

1. Passive Targeting: Medium of targeting by nano  medicine vehicles  A  veritably important criterion for the selection of a nanomedicine  expression for cancer  remedy would be its  effectiveness in targeting the cancer towel in a specific manner and having  minimum side  goods on the normal towel. The  colorful nano-  phrasings used to deliver anticancer  medicines to excrescence  spots use varying targeting mechanisms for this purpose. The medium of  medicine delivery and the advantages of nanocarriers will vary by carrier. Nanocarriers directly deliver  remedial agents to the bloodstream and reach the targeted area. They  also induce DNA damage by reactive oxygen species( ROS) overproduction. This may eventually lead to apoptosis and cell death. (36.37). Two major types of targeting  styles are used for nano- grounded  medicine delivery  unresistant and active. In  unresistant  system, the  parcels of the excrescence  point are used to concentrate the nano- vehicles to the excrescence  point. The major factors used for this are Enhanced Permeability and Retention( EPR) and Tumor Micro Environment( TME)  parcels. Unlike normal cells, excrescence cells induce neovascularisation due to high proliferation and large pores in the vascular walls that favor unresistant targeting. Due to amiss angiogenesis,  patches can reach the excrescence  point and accumulate. Poor lymphatic drainage also increases  flyspeck retention performing in EPR on excrescences. still, the high interstitial fluid pressure inside the excrescence medium reduces the uptake and homogeneous distribution of nanoparticles. (38.39)

2. Active Targeting: Active targeting Although the enhanced permeability and retention effect of excrescence towel causes nanoparticles to preferentially accumulate there to a lesser extent than in normal towel, the abnormal and dysfunctional excrescence medium constantly leads to the miscellaneous distribution of nanoparticle which primarily live in the perivascular area and excrescence fringe. thus, numerous nanocarriers also use the TME parcels similar as acidic pH, advanced redox eventuality, and discriminational stashing of lytic enzymes for invariant medicine delivery throughout the excrescence. Active targeting also utilizes the parcels of the excrescence cells similar as the cell face receptors expressed by the cancer cells. still, the targeting is achieved by the use of colorful motes hybridized along with the carrier to specifically target these. Then, we look into the different modes of targeting used by the colorful nano-phrasings and some of their advantages as well as disadvantages. (40)

II. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would you like to Acknowledge LBYP college of pharmacy Pathri for providing necessary infrastructure and resourses for this continuous study supported by encouragement This work.

Conclusion

Nanomedicine is proving to be a rather attractive modality in the management of several diseases including cancer. However, it is of paramount importance to consider the various hurdles the have so far prevented many nanocarriers from attaining the ultimate phase of clinical trials. Moreover, to reduce the failure rate and the cost of fostered nanocarriers, one should first address the bottleneck limitations facing the therapeutic success of nanomedicine. These include 1) Suboptimal permeability and retention of these vehicles at the tumor site, 2) Limited capacity to couple nanocarriers simultaneously with multiple therapeutics, and 3) Scarcity of pre-clinical studies involving humanized animal models that are more comparable to the human physiology.

References

[1] SEER Training Modules, Module Name. U. S. National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute. Day Month Year https://training.seer.cancer.gov/disease/categories/classification.html. [2] Cancer nanomedicine: a review of nano-therapeutics and challenges ahead M. Joyce Nirmala, Uma Kizhuveetil, Athira Johnson, Balaji G, Ramamurthy Nagarajan, and Vignesh Muthuvijayan Published online 2023 Mar 14 [3] Amos O. Abioye1; George Tangyie Chi 1; Adeola T. Kola-Mustapha2; Ketan Ruparelia1; Ken Beresford1Randolph Arroo1Polymer-drug nanoconjugate – an innovative nanomedicine: challenges and recent advancements in rationalformulation design for effective delivery of poorly soluble drugs. [4] Author links open overlay panelDongkyu Kim a, Sangyong Jon. Gold nanoparticles in image-guided cancer therapy [5] Larissa Y Rizzo Benjamin Theek, Gert Storm, Fabian Kiessling, Twan Lammers Recent progress in nanomedicine: therapeutic, diagnostic and theranostic applications. [6] Hongyun Lu1, Shengliang Zhang1, Jinling Wang2 and Qihe Chen1.A Review on Polymer and Lipid-Based Nanocarriers and Its Application to Nano-Pharmaceutical and Food-Based Systems [7] Guimarães D, Cavaco-Paulo A, Nogueira E. Design of liposomes asdrug delivery system for therapeutic applications. Int J Pharm. [8] Raemdonck K, Braeckmans K, Demeester J, De Smedt SC. Merging thebest of both worlds: hybrid lipid-enveloped matrix nanocomposites in drugdelivery. Chem Soc Rev [9] Lima PHC, Butera AP, Cabeça LF, Ribeiro-Viana RM. Liposome surfacemodification by phospholipid chemical reactions. Chem Phys Lipids. [10] Cheng Z, Li M, Dey R, Chen Y. Nanomaterials for cancertherapy: current progress and perspectives. J Hematol Oncol. [11] Muller RH, Mader K, Gohla S. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) for controlleddrug delivery - a review of the state of the art. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. (2000)50:161–77. doi: 10.1016/S0939-6411(00)00087-4 [12] Yuan H, Wang L-L, Du Y-Z, You J, Hu F-Q, Zeng S. Preparationand characteristics of nanostructured lipid carriers for control-releasingprogesterone by melt-emulsification. Colloids Surf B Biointerf. (2007)60:174–9. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2007.06.011 [13] Saupe, A., and Rades, T. (2006). “Solid lipid nanoparticles,” in NanocarrierTechnologies (Berlin: Springer), 41–50. [14] Rostami E, Kashanian S, Azandaryani AH, Faramarzi H, Dolatabadi JEN,Omidfar K. Drug targeting using solid lipid nanoparticles. Chem Phys Lipids.(2014) 181:56–61. doi: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2014.03.006 [15] Ezzati Nazhad Dolatabadi J, Valizadeh H, Hamishehkar H. Solidlipid nanoparticles as efficient drug and gene delivery systems: recentbreakthroughs. (2015) 5:151–9. doi: 10.15171/apb.2015.022 [16] Wong HL, Bendayan R, Rauth AM, Li Y, Wu XY. Chemotherapy with anticancer drugs encapsulated in solid lipid nanoparticles. Adv Drug DelivRev. (2007) 59:491–504. doi: 10.1016/j.addr.2007.04.008 [17] Frank Alexis, Eric M. Pridgen, Robert Langer, and Omid C. Farokhzad . Nanoparticle Technologies for Cancer Therapy. [18] National Cancer institute Nanodelivery System and devices Sangheon Han, Konstantin Sokolov, Tomasz Zal, Anna Zal, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center. [19] Nanoparticle And their application in cell and molecular biology Edina C.Wang and Andrew Z. Wang . [20] Hawkins MJ, Soon-Shiong P, Desai N. Protein nanoparticles as drug carriers in clinical medicine. AdvancedDrugDeliveryReviews. 2008;60:876–885. . [21] Gradishar WJ, Tjulandin S, Davidson N, Shaw H, Desai N, Bhar P, Hawkins M, O\'Shaughnessy J. Phase III Trial of Nanoparticle Albumin-Bound Paclitaxel Compared With Polyethylated Castor Oil–Based Paclitaxel in Women With Breast Cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23:7794–7803. [22] Harries M, Ellis P, Harper P. Nanoparticle Albumin–Bound Paclitaxel for Metastatic Breast Cancer. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2005;23:7768–7771. [23] Gradishar WJ. Albumin-bound paclitaxel: a next-generation taxane. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 2006;7:1041–1053. [24] Daniel M-C, Astruc D. Gold Nanoparticles: Assembly, Supramolecular Chemistry, Quantum-Size-Related Properties, and Applications toward Biology, Catalysis, and Nanotechnology. Chemical Reviews. 2003;104:293–346. [25] Bulte JWM, Kraitchman DL. Iron oxide MR contrast agents for molecular and cellular imaging. NMR in Biomedicine. 2004;17:484–499. [26] Wang Y-X, Hussain S, Krestin G. Superparamagnetic iron oxide contrast agents: physicochemical characteristics and applications in MR imaging. Eur Radiol. 2001;11:2319–2331. [27] Huang X, Jain PK, El-Sayed IH, El-Sayed MA. Gold nanoparticles: interesting optical properties and recent applications in cancer diagnostics and therapy. Nanomedicine. 2007;2:681–693. [28] Nie S, Emory SR. Probing Single Molecules and Single Nanoparticles by Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering. Science. 1997;275:1102–1106. [29] Peng G, Tisch U, Adams O, Hakim M, Shehada N, Broza YY, Billan S, Abdah-Bortnyak R, Kuten A, Haick H. Diagnosing lung cancer in exhaled breath using gold nanoparticles. Nat Nano. 2009;4:669–673. [30] Liu X, Dai Q, Austin L, Coutts J, Knowles G, Zou J, Chen H, Huo Q. A One-Step Homogeneous Immunoassay for Cancer Biomarker Detection Using Gold Nanoparticle Probes Coupled with Dynamic Light Scattering. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 2008;130:2780–2782. [31] Huang X, El-Sayed IH, Qian W, El-Sayed MA. Cancer Cell Imaging and Photothermal Therapy in the Near-Infrared Region by Using Gold Nanorods. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 2006;128:2115–2120. [32] Michalet X, Pinaud FF, Bentolila LA, Tsay JM, Doose S, Li JJ, Sundaresan G, Wu AM, Gambhir SS, Weiss S. Quantum Dots for Live Cells, in Vivo Imaging, and Diagnostics. Science. 2005;307:538–544. [33] Xing Y, Chaudry Q, Shen C, Kong KY, Zhau HE, Chung LW, Petros JA, O\'Regan RM, Yezhelyev MV, Simons JW, Wang MD, Nie S. Bioconjugated quantum dots for multiplexed and quantitative immunohistochemistry. Nat. Protocols. 2007;2:1152–1165. [34] Chung I, Akita R, Vandlen R, Toomre D, Schlessinger J, Mellman I. Spatial control of EGF receptor activation by reversible dimerization on living cells. Nature. 2010;464:783–787. [35] Mundekkad D. Cho W. C. Nanoparticles in Clinical Translation for Cancer Therapy. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022;23(3):1685. [36] Durymanov M. Kamaletdinova T. Lehmann S. E. Reineke J. Exploiting passive nanomedicine accumulation at sites of enhanced vascular permeability for non-cancerous applications. J. Controlled Release. 2017;261:10–22. [37] Estanqueiro M. Amaral M. H. Conceição J. Sousa Lobo J. M. Nanotechnological carriers for cancer chemotherapy: the state of the art. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces. 2015;126:631–648. [38] Danhier F. Lecouturier N. Vroman B. Jérôme C. Marchand-Brynaert J. Feron O. et al., Paclitaxel-loaded PEGylated PLGA-based nanoparticles: In vitro and in vivo evaluation. J. Controlled Release. 2009;133(1):11–17. [39] Kalyane D. Raval N. Maheshwari R. Tambe V. Kalia K. Tekade R. K. Employment of enhanced permeability and retention effect (EPR): nanoparticle-based precision tools for targeting of therapeutic and diagnostic agent in cancer. Mater. Sci. Eng. C. 2019;98:1252–1276. [40] Khawar I. A. Kim J. H. Kuh H. J. Improving drug delivery to solid tumors: priming the tumor microenvironment. J. Controlled Release. 2015;201:78–89.

Copyright

Copyright © 2023 Mr. Rushikesh Akkalkar, Ms. Priyanka Zendekar, Ms. Shubhangi Manikpuriya, Dr. Gajanan Sanap. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.