Caste, Gender, and Media Stereotypes: A Study of Representation and Resistance

Abstract

The intersection of caste, gender, and media representation in India reflects deep-seated structural inequalities and historical power imbalances. Mainstream media—whether films, television, news media, or digital platforms—often reinforces dominant caste and patriarchal ideologies, perpetuating stereotypes that marginalize Dalits, Adivasis, and women, particularly Dalit and Adivasi women. This paper critically examines the persistence of such stereotypes in Indian media while also highlighting the emergence of resistance movements that seek to challenge and subvert misrepresentation. By employing theoretical frameworks from intersectionality, cultural hegemony, postcolonial Dalit studies, and feminist media studies, this study explores how caste and gender bias operate within media narratives and how counter-representations are emerging to contest these dominant portrayals. Caste and gender are fundamental social hierarchies in India that dictate access to power, resources, and representation. While media has the potential to challenge discrimination, it often functions as a tool for reinforcing existing hierarchies. Dalits, Adivasis, and marginalized gender identities are frequently depicted through reductive stereotypes that either victimize them or erase their presence altogether. For example, Indian cinema, especially Bollywood, has a long history of either ignoring Dalit narratives or portraying Dalit characters in a highly stereotypical manner—either as victims of oppression (e.g., Sujata, 1959) or as criminals and subversive figures (e.g., Article 15, 2019). Similarly, Dalit women are often either hypersexualized or shown as passive victims, reinforcing casteist and patriarchal biases rather than presenting them as complex, empowered individuals. In contrast, independent Dalit filmmakers such as Pa. Ranjith (Kaala, 2018) and Nagraj Manjule (Fandry, 2013) have challenged these dominant narratives, offering authentic representations of Dalit lives and struggles. Television and news media also contribute to the perpetuation of caste and gender stereotypes. Hindi television serials, which hold a significant influence over public perception, often depict upper-caste, fair-skinned women as idealized heroines while relegating darker-skinned and lower-caste characters to subservient or negative roles. Shows like Balika Vadhu and Uttaran reinforce caste hierarchies by positioning lower-caste characters in subordinate positions and associating upper-caste women with purity and virtue. News media, largely dominated by upper-caste journalists, underreports caste atrocities and often frames caste-based violence in ways that diminish its systemic nature. For instance, the 2016 Rohith Vemula suicide case and the 2020 Hathras rape case were covered in a manner that downplayed the casteist and gendered dimensions of these incidents. Dalit politicians and activists, such as Mayawati, are frequently misrepresented in the press, where their leadership is framed as authoritarian rather than as a struggle for marginalized communities’ rights. Despite these challenges, resistance movements and counter-narratives have gained momentum, particularly in the digital media space. The rise of Dalit-led media platforms such as Dalit Camera, The Caravan, and The Wire has provided a space for marginalized voices to tell their own stories, offering perspectives that mainstream media often neglects. Social media has also emerged as a powerful tool for activism, with hashtags like #DalitLivesMatter and #MeTooDalit drawing attention to issues of caste and gender discrimination. Independent content creators on YouTube and Twitter have challenged casteist and patriarchal media narratives, creating alternative discourses that resist dominant representations. Dalit feminist discourse has played a crucial role in critiquing both mainstream feminism and Dalit politics for ignoring the unique struggles of Dalit women. Organizations like the All India Dalit Mahila Adhikar Manch (AIDMAM) have worked towards amplifying the voices of Dalit women, highlighting issues at the intersection of caste and gender oppression. Intersectional feminist activists like Ruth Manorama and Kiruba Munusamy have emphasized the necessity of addressing caste-based discrimination within feminist movements, advocating for a more inclusive approach to gender justice. In cinema, the rise of alternative and regional filmmaking has provided a platform for more authentic representations of caste and gender. Tamil and Marathi cinema, in particular, have led the way in challenging Bollywood’s upper-caste hegemony. Films like Kaala (2018) and Sairat (2016) have subverted mainstream tropes by centering Dalit and lower-caste protagonists in powerful narratives that challenge caste hierarchies. While resistance movements have gained significant ground, several challenges persist. The corporate ownership of mainstream media continues to be dominated by upper-caste groups, limiting opportunities for genuine representation. Online spaces, while offering a platform for marginalized voices, are also sites of casteist trolling and digital harassment, making it difficult for Dalit activists and journalists to operate freely. Additionally, mainstream media and entertainment industries have attempted to co-opt Dalit narratives without genuine inclusivity, leading to tokenistic representation rather than meaningful change. To create a more equitable and inclusive media landscape, several systemic changes are necessary. Affirmative action policies should be implemented in media industries to ensure greater representation of marginalized communities. Independent Dalit-led publications and film production houses should be encouraged and financially supported. Media literacy programs must be developed to educate audiences about casteist and sexist stereotypes in media and to promote critical engagement with mainstream narratives. In conclusion, caste and gender biases in Indian media continue to reinforce structural inequalities, but the emergence of digital activism, independent journalism, and alternative cinema has created new possibilities for resistance and counter-representation. The fight for fair representation is ongoing, and while challenges remain, the increasing visibility of Dalit voices in media marks a crucial step towards a more just and inclusive society.

Introduction

I. INTRODUCTION

India is a land of diverse cultures, religions, languages, and social structures. Yet, amid this diversity, there exists an enduring social hierarchy that governs access to resources, power, and opportunities. The caste system, a complex structure of social stratification, plays a crucial role in this hierarchy. Over centuries, caste-based discrimination has become deeply embedded in the fabric of Indian society, influencing various aspects of life, including education, employment, political power, and media representation. Alongside caste, gender has remained another fundamental social axis of discrimination. For women, especially those from marginalized castes such as Dalits and Adivasis, life becomes an intersection of oppression and exclusion. In this context, the role of media in both perpetuating and resisting these social injustices becomes central to understanding how caste and gender operate within Indian society.

Media is a powerful force in shaping public perceptions, constructing narratives, and influencing social attitudes. It plays a pivotal role in either reinforcing or challenging the status quo of social hierarchies. Mainstream media in India—comprising films, television, news media, and digital platforms—has been a significant vehicle for reinforcing dominant ideologies of caste and gender. Through media, certain stereotypes are perpetuated, marginalized communities are misrepresented, and their voices are silenced. Dalits, Adivasis, and women—particularly Dalit and Adivasi women—are often portrayed through reductive and negative stereotypes that contribute to their further marginalization. While media has the potential to challenge discrimination, the reality is that it often reinforces the very ideologies that sustain caste-based and gender-based oppression.

This study aims to critically analyze the intersection of caste and gender in media representations and the ways in which marginalized communities, particularly Dalits and women, resist misrepresentation. By examining films, television serials, news media, and digital platforms, this paper explores how these media forms perpetuate caste and gender stereotypes and how resistance movements, alternative media, and digital activism are challenging these stereotypes and demanding more equitable representations. Using theoretical frameworks from intersectionality, cultural hegemony, Dalit studies, and feminist media studies, this paper critically evaluates the role of media in sustaining structural inequalities while also highlighting the emergence of counter-narratives that challenge the mainstream media’s portrayal of caste and gender.

A. Caste and Gender in the Indian Social Structure

Caste, as a social system, has a history deeply rooted in the religious and cultural practices of India. Traditionally, it is a hierarchical classification of people into different groups based on their birth. This system, though formally abolished in India through constitutional laws and reforms, continues to have a profound impact on the lives of millions of people. Dalits, those historically considered "untouchables," are at the bottom of this caste hierarchy, enduring systemic discrimination and marginalization. Adivasis, or indigenous communities, have also faced similar forms of exclusion based on their ethnic and cultural identity.

Women, in addition to their caste identity, face a different but overlapping layer of oppression due to their gender. Patriarchy, deeply ingrained in Indian society, dictates the roles and rights of women, particularly those from marginalized backgrounds.

Dalit and Adivasi women experience a dual burden of caste and gender discrimination, making their struggles distinct from those of upper-caste women. The intersection of caste and gender creates a unique form of oppression that these women experience in all aspects of life, from their family structures to their participation in society, and their representation in media.

Media, as an influential tool of cultural production and dissemination, plays a key role in either challenging or reinforcing these oppressive systems. Mainstream media in India, often controlled by upper-caste elites, has historically marginalized the voices of Dalits, Adivasis, and women, particularly those from these marginalized groups. The portrayal of these groups in media is often stereotypical, reducing them to victimhood, subjugation, or invisibility. Media’s tendency to marginalize and misrepresent these communities perpetuates the larger social inequalities that persist in Indian society.

B. The Role of Media in Perpetuating Caste and Gender Stereotypes

Indian cinema, particularly Bollywood, has been a major force in shaping social and cultural norms in the country. However, Bollywood’s portrayal of caste and gender often reflects dominant societal views, reinforcing caste hierarchies and patriarchal gender norms. Dalit characters, for instance, are often portrayed either as victims of social injustice or as criminals and subversive figures. The narrative arc of Dalit characters in mainstream cinema rarely transcends these limitations, rarely presenting them as agents of their own change. Films such as Sujata (1959) and Article 15 (2019) illustrate this pattern: Dalits are depicted either as passive victims of upper-caste brutality or as perpetrators of crime.

Women, especially Dalit women, have historically been absent from mainstream cinema. When they are represented, they are often shown as subjugated figures—either in violent relationships or subjected to sexual exploitation. For example, in the film Bandit Queen (1994), the portrayal of Phoolan Devi, a woman from a lower-caste background, reflects both the violence and resistance she experienced, but it also reinforces the trope of the hypersexualized Dalit woman, positioning her as both a victim and a perpetrator of violence. The film ultimately reduces her to an object of sensationalism rather than a complex individual.

Television, which has a wider and more diverse audience, follows similar patterns in its portrayal of caste and gender. Mainstream Hindi soap operas, which dominate the television landscape, often feature upper-caste characters, particularly fair-skinned women, as idealized heroines. In contrast, darker-skinned, lower-caste characters are often depicted as secondary, subservient, or negative figures. Television serials like Balika Vadhu and Uttaran reinforce caste and gender stereotypes, depicting lower-caste characters in subordinate roles, while the upper-caste characters are presented as virtuous and pure. These depictions contribute to the reinforcement of social hierarchies and shape the audience's understanding of caste and gender in everyday life.

News media in India, which is predominantly controlled by upper-caste journalists and editors, has also been complicit in perpetuating caste-based biases. Mainstream news outlets often underreport caste-based violence or frame it in a way that diminishes its significance. When caste atrocities are reported, they are often framed as individual crimes rather than systemic issues of caste discrimination. The media also tends to focus on the sensational aspects of such stories, drawing attention away from the root causes of caste-based violence. Furthermore, Dalit leaders and activists are often portrayed in the media as authoritarian or radical, rather than as individuals advocating for social justice. This misrepresentation further perpetuates negative stereotypes about Dalits and their struggles.

C. Emergence of Resistance and Counter-Narratives

While mainstream media has been instrumental in perpetuating caste and gender stereotypes, there has also been a growing movement of resistance and counter-representation. Digital media, in particular, has become a powerful tool for marginalized communities to challenge dominant narratives. Social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram have provided a space for Dalit activists and feminists to voice their concerns and mobilize for change. Hashtags like #DalitLivesMatter and #MeTooDalit have become rallying cries for those seeking to address caste and gender oppression. These movements, often driven by young people from marginalized communities, are pushing for greater visibility and inclusion in media and public life.

Dalit-led media platforms like Dalit Camera, The Caravan, and The Wire have emerged as important voices in the media landscape, offering alternative narratives that challenge the mainstream portrayal of caste and gender. These platforms provide a space for Dalit writers, journalists, and filmmakers to tell their own stories and offer critical perspectives on issues of caste and gender discrimination. Independent filmmakers such as Pa. Ranjith (Kaala, 2018) and Nagraj Manjule (Fandry, 2013) have also played a significant role in challenging the dominant media narratives. These filmmakers use cinema as a tool for social change, offering more authentic portrayals of Dalit and lower-caste lives and struggles. Their works have been widely acclaimed for their nuanced and powerful representations of caste and gender in contemporary India.

Feminist movements within Dalit communities, such as Dalit feminism, have also been crucial in critiquing both mainstream feminist movements and Dalit politics for ignoring the specific struggles of Dalit women. Dalit feminists argue that mainstream feminism, with its focus on upper-caste women’s issues, has often overlooked the unique intersection of caste and gender oppression that Dalit women face. Activists like Ruth Manorama and Kiruba Munusamy have worked tirelessly to highlight the importance of addressing caste-based discrimination within feminist movements and have advocated for a more inclusive approach to gender justice.

The role of media in shaping perceptions of caste and gender in India is complex and multifaceted. While mainstream media has historically perpetuated harmful stereotypes and misrepresentations of marginalized communities, there has also been a growing movement of resistance and counter-representation. Digital media, Dalit-led journalism, and independent cinema have created spaces for alternative narratives that challenge dominant portrayals of caste and gender. The need for a more inclusive and equitable media landscape is urgent, and this study aims to critically examine how caste and gender intersect in media representations, how stereotypes persist, and how resistance movements are emerging to counter these biases. Through this analysis, the paper hopes to contribute to the broader conversation on caste, gender, and media in contemporary India and the need for systemic change in media representation.

D. This paper aims to analyze:

1. How caste and gender intersect in media representations.
2. The persistence of stereotypes in films, television, and news media.
3. Emerging forms of resistance and counter-representation in digital and independent media.

II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The study of caste, gender, and media stereotypes requires an interdisciplinary approach that draws from media studies, feminist theory, Dalit studies, and intersectionality. The following theoretical perspectives serve as a foundation for understanding the ways in which caste and gender oppression is represented and resisted in Indian media. These frameworks are essential for critically analyzing how mainstream media constructs and reinforces social inequalities, and how marginalized communities challenge these representations.

A. Intersectionality (Kimberlé Crenshaw, 1989)

The concept of intersectionality, coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw in the late 1980s, is foundational to understanding how various axes of identity—such as caste, gender, class, and race—interact and create unique forms of oppression and privilege. Intersectionality posits that people do not experience social categories in isolation; rather, their experiences of discrimination or privilege are shaped by the intersection of multiple social identities. In the context of caste and gender in India, Dalit and Adivasi women face not only the general oppression of patriarchy but also the compounded discrimination of caste-based prejudice.

For instance, Dalit women’s experiences cannot be fully understood through the lens of either caste or gender alone. Instead, their oppression is a result of both these social categories intersecting, creating a distinct and often harsher form of marginalization. Intersectionality allows for a more nuanced analysis of media representations that fail to account for the specific lived realities of these women. It helps us understand why Dalit women are both absent from mainstream narratives and misrepresented when they are included. Their voices are often marginalized in the media, while the intersections of caste and gender render their struggles invisible in both mainstream feminist movements and caste-based activism. In media studies, intersectionality provides a framework to examine how representations of marginalized communities can either perpetuate or challenge stereotypes. By applying intersectionality, this study analyzes how media representation fails to account for the complexity of identity and experiences among Dalit and Adivasi women, thereby reinforcing monolithic stereotypes that erase their individuality.

B. Cultural Hegemony (Antonio Gramsci, 1971)

Antonio Gramsci’s theory of cultural hegemony is instrumental in understanding how dominant ideologies, such as caste-based hierarchies and patriarchal gender norms, are maintained through media. According to Gramsci, hegemony refers to the dominance of a particular set of ideas or values that are established and perpetuated through culture, politics, and institutions, making them appear "natural" or "universal." In India, the cultural hegemony of upper-caste and patriarchal norms has been reinforced for centuries, and the media plays a crucial role in maintaining this dominance by portraying upper-caste values as superior and normative.

Gramsci's concept of hegemony is especially relevant in analyzing how the Indian media both reflects and reinforces caste and gender inequalities. The Indian media, dominated by upper-caste elites and patriarchal structures, regularly presents dominant caste and gendered perspectives, often relegating marginalized groups to stereotypical roles. This media narrative sustains the perception that upper-caste, male-dominated, and patriarchal ideologies are not just the status quo but also the most legitimate and natural. These ideologies thus reinforce the social power structures that oppress Dalits, Adivasis, and women.

For example, in Indian cinema, upper-caste characters, particularly men, are often portrayed as protagonists, while lower-caste characters are either invisible or reduced to the status of villains or victims. Similarly, in television and news media, Dalit women are often erased from narratives or cast in subservient roles, reinforcing the idea that their voices and experiences are less important. The perpetuation of these stereotypes serves the interests of the dominant groups by masking the realities of caste-based oppression and gender inequality.

Gramsci's theory of cultural hegemony helps us understand how media representations function to sustain caste and gender hierarchies, even when the media purports to reflect the diversity and reality of Indian society. Media not only perpetuates these inequalities but also dissuades audiences from questioning or challenging them by making the status quo seem unchangeable and natural.

C. Postcolonial and Dalit Studies (B.R. Ambedkar, 1946; Gopal Guru, 1997)

Postcolonial theory and Dalit studies provide critical insights into the historical roots and ongoing effects of caste-based prejudice in India. Postcolonial theorists, including Edward Said, Gayatri Spivak, and Homi Bhabha, argue that colonialism left an indelible mark on the social, cultural, and political structures of postcolonial societies like India. Caste-based discrimination, while not a direct product of colonialism, was significantly shaped by colonial policies and ideologies, which reinforced the social stratification of Indian society. The colonial state's policies often aligned with upper-caste interests, deepening caste divisions and elevating the social and political power of certain communities.

Dalit studies, a subfield of postcolonial studies, focuses specifically on the experiences of Dalits, historically labeled as "untouchables," and their resistance to caste-based oppression. Key figures in Dalit studies, such as B.R. Ambedkar, have critiqued the social, religious, and political systems that perpetuate caste-based discrimination. Ambedkar, who is considered the architect of India’s Constitution, fought for the rights of Dalits and other marginalized communities, advocating for social and political reforms to dismantle the caste system.

The Dalit studies framework helps us understand how media representations have historically reflected and reinforced caste-based hierarchies. Films, television, and news media have long excluded Dalit voices, often presenting them in negative or dehumanized forms. When Dalits are represented, they are often portrayed as victims of violence, subjugation, or crime, but rarely as active agents of change. Through Dalit studies, this paper seeks to explore how media has been complicit in the erasure of Dalit and Adivasi voices and how resistance to this erasure is emerging.

Postcolonial and Dalit frameworks also help in examining how the media in postcolonial India continues to serve the interests of dominant caste groups while marginalizing the voices of the oppressed. For example, in mainstream Bollywood cinema, Dalits and Adivasis are often portrayed through a narrow set of stereotypes, reinforcing their status as outsiders or subordinates. These portrayals reflect the persistence of colonial-era social structures, with the media reinforcing the dominance of upper-caste, patriarchal, and heteronormative values.

D. Feminist Media Studies (Judith Butler, 1990)

Feminist media studies focus on the ways in which media representations shape and reinforce gender norms, often marginalizing women’s voices and reinforcing patriarchal values. Feminist scholars, such as Judith Butler, have theorized the role of gender as a performative act—a set of behaviors, actions, and expressions that are socially constructed and enforced through cultural norms. Butler’s theory of performativity, particularly in her work Gender Trouble (1990), posits that gender is not an innate or biological reality but a socially constructed identity that is continually performed and reinforced through repeated acts.

In the context of caste and gender, Dalit women are particularly vulnerable to gendered and casteist stereotypes that render them passive, voiceless, or hypersexualized. Media representations, shaped by patriarchal and caste-based ideologies, often portray Dalit women as victims of violence, sexual exploitation, or as subordinate figures within their communities. The intersection of caste and gender oppression creates unique challenges for Dalit women, who are marginalized both within mainstream feminism and within Dalit activism, often overlooked in discussions of gender justice and caste reform.

Feminist media studies are instrumental in analyzing how the media perpetuates gendered stereotypes that reduce Dalit women to one-dimensional figures—either as victims of violence or as objects of sexual exploitation. This paper uses feminist media theory to analyze how these media representations function to obscure the agency and complexity of Dalit and Adivasi women, while also exploring the ways in which digital media and alternative forms of cinema have provided a space for more authentic portrayals of these women.

The theoretical frameworks outlined above offer a robust lens through which to analyze the intersection of caste, gender, and media stereotypes in India. Intersectionality allows for a nuanced understanding of how caste and gender combine creating specific forms of oppression for Dalit and Adivasi women. Cultural hegemony provides insight into how dominant caste and patriarchal ideologies are maintained and perpetuated through media. Postcolonial and Dalit studies reveal the historical roots of caste-based discrimination in India and the ways in which media continues to reflect and reinforce these inequalities. Finally, feminist media studies help us explore the gendered dimensions of caste oppression and how media representations often erase or marginalize Dalit women’s voices.

By drawing on these diverse theoretical perspectives, this study aims to critically examine how caste and gender intersect in media representations, how these stereotypes persist, and how resistance movements are challenging these narratives. These frameworks provide the foundation for understanding both the problem of misrepresentation and the potential for media to serve as a space for resistance and counter-representation.

III. CASTE AND GENDER STEREOTYPES IN MEDIA

Media plays a powerful role in shaping societal attitudes, reflecting and reinforcing cultural norms and values. In India, caste and gender are deeply intertwined social categories that affect individuals’ lives in profound ways. Over time, mainstream media—films, television, and news media—has played a key role in perpetuating caste and gender stereotypes, often reinforcing existing hierarchies and marginalizing the experiences and voices of Dalit and Adivasi communities, particularly Dalit and Adivasi women. This section delves into the ways in which caste and gender stereotypes are portrayed in Indian media, and how such representations continue to shape societal perceptions and reinforce inequality.

A. Representation in Films

Indian cinema, particularly Bollywood, has long been criticized for its portrayal of caste and gender. The depiction of Dalits, Adivasis, and marginalized women in films often follows stereotypes that either marginalize or erase these communities entirely. These portrayals not only reflect societal attitudes but also reinforce them, as they reach a vast audience and influence public perception.

1) Caste Erasure in Indian Cinema

A key feature of Indian cinema is the erasure of caste struggles and the overwhelming presence of upper-caste protagonists. The narratives are often dominated by characters from dominant castes, and the stories they tell rarely address caste-based oppression or struggles. When caste is included in the storyline, it is often presented as a background issue or sanitized, removing the complexities and lived realities of caste-based discrimination.

A film like Sujata (1959), for example, presents a relatively sympathetic portrayal of a Dalit woman but fails to tackle the systemic nature of caste oppression. Sujata, the protagonist, is shown as a victim of caste discrimination, but the story largely focuses on her integration into the mainstream, erasing the broader social structures that perpetuate caste-based inequality. This portrayal limits the ability of the film to contribute to a deeper critique of caste and presents the issue as an individual problem to be overcome rather than a structural issue that needs societal transformation.

2) Misrepresentation of Dalit Women

The portrayal of Dalit women in Indian cinema is particularly problematic. Dalit women are often depicted through two dominant stereotypes: as victims of violence or as objects of sexual exploitation. In films such as Bandit Queen (1994), the character of Phoolan Devi, a real-life figure, is portrayed as a victim of gang rape and violence, and her narrative is constructed around her brutalization. While this may reflect the brutal realities faced by Dalit women in certain contexts, it also perpetuates the stereotype of Dalit women as victims of violence. This victimization narrative often overshadows their agency, resilience, and complex identities.

In more contemporary films, Dalit women are frequently portrayed as objects of sexual exploitation, reinforcing harmful stereotypes about their perceived worthlessness and subservience. These stereotypes reflect a historical view of Dalit women as being outside the realm of respectability, often portrayed as sexually available to upper-caste men or as being inherently impure. This type of misrepresentation not only reduces Dalit women to their sexuality but also perpetuates an enduring stereotype about their subordinate position within society.

3) Emerging Dalit Cinema

Despite the dominant narratives, there has been a shift in recent years with the emergence of independent and Dalit cinema that offers more authentic portrayals of Dalit lives and challenges the prevailing stereotypes. Filmmakers such as Pa. Ranjith and Nagraj Manjule are leading this change. Ranjith's Kaala (2018) and Manjule's Fandry (2013) depict Dalit characters as multifaceted, defiant individuals who resist the social and cultural forces that attempt to marginalize them.

In Kaala, Ranjith presents a Dalit protagonist, a leader who rises against an oppressive upper-caste system. The film centers on the assertion of Dalit identity and the fight for social justice, offering an alternative to the victimization narrative commonly seen in mainstream films. Similarly, Fandry portrays the struggles of a young Dalit boy and his aspirations for a better life, a portrayal that challenges the romanticization of rural India and gives voice to the inner life of marginalized characters. These films subvert the traditional portrayal of Dalits and offer counter-narratives that push against the stereotypes imposed by mainstream media.

B. Television and Daily Soaps

Indian television, particularly in its soap operas, often mirrors and reinforces caste-based hierarchies. The portrayal of gender in these serials is also heavily influenced by caste. Upper-caste characters, particularly women, are depicted as idealized, pure, and virtuous, while lower-caste women are often shown as subservient or villainous.

1) Sanskritization in Television Serials

One significant trend in television serials is the portrayal of lower-caste characters as subservient and their narrative relegation to roles of domestic help, service workers, or villains. Shows such as Balika Vadhu and Uttaran feature characters from lower-caste communities who are depicted as loyal servants or victimized individuals, never rising to challenge the power dynamics of the upper-caste characters. These portrayals reinforce the idea of lower-caste individuals as belonging to a subservient social order, unable to break free from their "place" in the social hierarchy.

The phenomenon of Sanskritization—the process by which lower-caste groups attempt to emulate the practices, rituals, and values of upper-caste groups in order to gain social status—is often depicted in these serials. For example, characters from lower-caste backgrounds may attempt to emulate upper-caste behaviors and lifestyles, but their efforts are often shown as futile or doomed to failure. This narrative reinforces the idea that caste-based social mobility is unattainable and that lower-caste individuals are inherently inferior.

2) Gendered Caste Bias in Television

Television serials also reinforce gendered caste biases, especially in their portrayal of women. Upper-caste women are typically shown as symbols of purity, modesty, and respectability. These characters are often portrayed as being the moral center of the narrative, with their struggles and triumphs framed within the context of family, societal expectations, and domesticity. In contrast, lower-caste women are often cast as villains or as the object of abuse and exploitation. Their characters are frequently portrayed as "impure" or morally corrupt, either as seductresses or as cruel, manipulative figures. This dichotomy reinforces the notion that caste and gender are inseparably tied, with upper-caste women embodying virtue and lower-caste women embodying vice.

In addition, the portrayal of skin color also plays an important role in reinforcing caste and gender biases in television. Lighter-skinned characters are often positioned as the ideal beauty standard, while darker-skinned characters, many of whom are also from lower-caste backgrounds, are frequently shown as less attractive or undesirable. This reinforces colorism, a form of discrimination that is deeply tied to caste identity in India.

C. News Media and Caste Bias

Mainstream news media in India is largely dominated by upper-caste journalists, editors, and media owners, and as such, it plays a significant role in shaping public discourse around caste. News coverage is often skewed, either underreporting caste-based atrocities or framing them in ways that diminish their significance. Dalit voices are largely absent from editorial spaces, and when caste-related issues are discussed, they are often downplayed or misrepresented.

1) Media Silence on Caste Violence

The 2016 suicide of Rohith Vemula, a Dalit student at the University of Hyderabad, and the 2020 Hathras gangrape case, both highlight the selective reportage and marginalization of caste-related violence in mainstream news media. In Vemula’s case, while the incident garnered significant media attention, much of the initial coverage failed to adequately address the role of caste-based discrimination in his death. Instead, media outlets tended to frame the issue as a personal tragedy or as a problem of campus politics, rather than as a case of systemic caste-based violence.

Similarly, the Hathras rape case, which involved the brutal gangrape and subsequent death of a young Dalit woman, was covered in ways that obscured the caste-based dynamics of the crime. While the victim's caste was initially downplayed by mainstream media outlets, Dalit-led media platforms were quicker to highlight the caste-based nature of the violence. The lack of an honest reckoning with caste violence in mainstream journalism reinforces the erasure of caste-related struggles from the public consciousness.

2) Stereotyping of Dalit Leaders

When Dalit leaders such as Mayawati or Kanshi Ram are covered in the news, they are often depicted through a lens that emphasizes their authoritarian leadership style, portraying them as autocratic and manipulative. This stereotype not only undermines their contributions to Dalit empowerment but also reflects the deep-seated prejudice against Dalit leaders and their efforts to challenge upper-caste domination.

3) Alternative Journalism: Dalit-led Media Platforms

In contrast to mainstream media, alternative and Dalit-led media platforms have emerged as powerful tools for challenging caste biases and providing a voice to marginalized communities. Platforms like The Caravan, Dalit Camera, and The Wire are helping to reshape the discourse around caste in India.

These platforms provide critical analysis of caste issues and give space to Dalit voices that are otherwise excluded from mainstream media. Through investigative journalism, documentaries, and op-eds, they are actively challenging the narrative shaped by upper-caste dominated media.

For example, Dalit Camera produces content that highlights the struggles of Dalit communities, while The Wire regularly features reporting on caste-based violence and inequality, often from the perspective of Dalit activists and scholars. These alternative platforms are essential in shifting the discourse around caste in India, offering counter-narratives that challenge the dominant, sanitized portrayal of caste in mainstream media.

Caste and gender stereotypes in Indian media continue to reinforce societal inequalities, particularly by marginalizing Dalit and Adivasi communities and erasing their voices. Films, television serials, and news media often perpetuate these stereotypes through caste erasure, victimization of Dalit women, and the promotion of upper-caste norms as the ideal. However, emerging independent cinema, digital activism, and Dalit-led media platforms are beginning to challenge these stereotypes and offer more authentic portrayals of marginalized communities.

These counter-narratives are crucial for transforming public perceptions and addressing the deeply entrenched social hierarchies that persist in Indian society.

IV. RESISTANCE AND COUNTER-NARRATIVES

As mainstream media continues to perpetuate caste and gender stereotypes, resistance movements have emerged, particularly through digital media, Dalit feminism, and alternative cinema. These counter-narratives not only challenge traditional portrayals of marginalized communities but also provide a platform for Dalits to reclaim their stories and demand equitable representation. This section explores the significant role of digital media, Dalit feminism, and alternative cinema in the ongoing struggle against caste and gender oppression in India.

A. Digital Media and Dalit Assertion

The advent of digital media has had a profound impact on the way marginalized communities, particularly Dalits, engage with issues of caste and gender. Social media platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube have provided Dalits with an unprecedented space to voice their experiences, challenge mainstream narratives, and organize for social change. Through the use of hashtags and independent content creation, Dalit voices have gained visibility and begun to reshape public discourse around caste and gender issues.

1) Hashtags and Social Movements

Hashtags like #DalitLivesMatter and #MeTooDalit have become powerful tools for mobilizing and amplifying the voices of Dalits in the digital space. These movements, inspired by global initiatives like the Black Lives Matter movement, bring attention to the systemic violence and discrimination faced by Dalits in India. The #DalitLivesMatter hashtag, for instance, has helped to highlight caste-based violence, oppression, and the lived experiences of Dalits, giving them an opportunity to assert their identity and demand justice. Similarly, the #MeTooDalit movement has raised awareness about the unique challenges Dalit women face, especially in the context of sexual violence and exploitation.

Social media platforms have also been instrumental in connecting Dalit activists, academics, and organizations, fostering a sense of solidarity and collective action. These digital spaces offer an alternative to the silencing of Dalit voices in mainstream media and allow for the creation of counter-narratives that challenge the dominant caste-based power structures.

2) YouTube and Independent Content Creators

Independent content creators on platforms like YouTube have played a significant role in challenging casteist portrayals in media. Channels like Dalit Camera and The Blue Dawn produce videos that confront caste-based discrimination and highlight the struggles of Dalit communities. Dalit Camera, for example, produces documentary-style content that explores the everyday realities of Dalit life, the impact of caste-based violence, and the resistance movements within Dalit communities. These videos provide a much-needed alternative to the mainstream media, offering a platform for Dalit voices to be heard without the filters imposed by upper-caste narratives.

The rise of independent content creators has democratized media production, allowing marginalized communities to tell their own stories on their own terms. This shift has been particularly important for Dalit communities, who have long been excluded from mainstream media production and representation.

3) Twitter and Hashtag Activism

Twitter has emerged as a significant platform for Dalit activism, enabling Dalits to engage in hashtag movements that challenge caste and gender oppression. The immediacy and reach of Twitter have allowed for the rapid dissemination of information about caste-based violence, discrimination, and injustice. Activists use Twitter to call out instances of caste discrimination in real-time, mobilize support for victims, and demand accountability from authorities. The use of hashtags like #DalitLivesMatter, #JusticeForRohithVemula, and #HathrasJustice has helped keep caste-based violence in the national conversation, pushing mainstream media to address these issues more directly.

Hashtag activism has also played a key role in the fight against the criminalization of Dalit identities. By trending caste-based issues on social media, Dalit activists have been able to force the Indian state and mainstream media to take notice and engage with issues that have traditionally been sidelined. This digital resistance has brought to the forefront the deep-seated caste discrimination that continues to permeate Indian society.

B. Dalit Feminist Discourse

Dalit feminism has emerged as a critical framework for understanding the intersection of caste and gender oppression. Dalit women face a unique form of discrimination that is shaped by both their caste and gender. While mainstream feminism has often neglected the specific struggles of Dalit women, Dalit feminism seeks to address the complex ways in which caste and gender intersect to create particular forms of oppression.

1) Critique of Mainstream Feminism

Dalit feminism critiques mainstream feminist movements for their tendency to prioritize the struggles of upper-caste women while overlooking the specific challenges faced by Dalit women. Traditional feminist frameworks often fail to account for how caste-based discrimination compounds the oppression experienced by Dalit women. As a result, Dalit women’s voices have been marginalized within feminist discourse, and their specific needs and struggles have been ignored.

Dalit feminists argue that the struggles of Dalit women cannot be understood solely through the lens of gender. Caste, as a structural and historical form of discrimination, must be central to any feminist analysis of Dalit women’s experiences. Dalit feminism, therefore, seeks to create a space where the intersection of caste and gender is recognized and addressed.

2) Dalit Feminist Organizations and Activism

Organizations like the All India Dalit Mahila Adhikar Manch (AIDMAM) have been at the forefront of advocating for the rights of Dalit women. AIDMAM works to amplify the voices of Dalit women, raise awareness about the unique challenges they face, and mobilize for social change. The organization focuses on issues such as caste-based violence, sexual exploitation, and the lack of access to education and healthcare for Dalit women.

Dalit feminists like Ruth Manorama and Kiruba Munusamy have played a crucial role in bringing attention to the intersectional nature of caste and gender oppression. Ruth Manorama, in particular, has been a vocal advocate for Dalit women’s rights and has worked to bring issues of caste-based violence, domestic labor, and sexual exploitation to the forefront of national discourse. Her work has helped to shift the focus of Dalit activism to include the experiences and struggles of Dalit women.

3) Intersectional Movements

The intersectionality of caste and gender oppression is a key tenet of Dalit feminism. Activists and scholars within the movement highlight how Dalit women experience a double burden of discrimination, both as women and as members of a marginalized caste. This intersectional approach has led to the development of a distinct Dalit feminist praxis that prioritizes the voices and experiences of Dalit women and seeks to dismantle both patriarchy and caste-based oppression.

Dalit women leaders like Ruth Manorama and Kiruba Munusamy have become key figures in the fight for social justice, highlighting how caste and gender are inseparably linked and calling for a reimagining of feminist activism that is inclusive of Dalit women’s struggles. Their work emphasizes the need for solidarity among marginalized groups and for the creation of movements that address the full complexity of Dalit women’s experiences.

C. Representation in Alternative Cinema

Alternative cinema has become a powerful space for marginalized communities to tell their own stories and challenge the dominant, casteist narratives of mainstream media. Filmmakers from Dalit, Adivasi, and other marginalized backgrounds are increasingly taking control of their narratives and creating films that reflect the lived realities of their communities. Tamil and Marathi cinema, in particular, have been instrumental in countering caste stereotypes and offering more nuanced portrayals of Dalit lives.

1) Dalit Cinema and Resistance

In recent years, independent Dalit filmmakers have produced films that challenge the stereotypical portrayals of Dalits in mainstream cinema. Films such as Kaala (2018) and Sairat (2016) provide authentic portrayals of Dalit life and offer powerful counter-narratives to the caste-based discrimination that pervades Indian society.

In Kaala, director Pa. Ranjith tells the story of a Dalit protagonist who leads a resistance movement against oppressive upper-caste forces. The film centers on the assertion of Dalit identity and the struggle for social justice, with the protagonist fighting against both caste-based violence and the commercialization of Dalit culture. Kaala is a powerful example of how Dalit filmmakers are using cinema to challenge caste-based oppression and offer a vision of resistance and empowerment.

Similarly, Sairat (2016), directed by Nagraj Manjule, is an inter-caste love story that subverts many of the tropes found in mainstream Bollywood cinema. The film explores the complexities of caste and class through the lens of a young couple who defy societal norms by falling in love across caste lines. Sairat challenges the deeply entrenched caste system by portraying the brutal consequences faced by the couple for their love, offering a critique of both caste-based oppression and the romanticization of inter-caste relationships in mainstream media.

2) Regional Cinema and Caste Representation

Tamil and Marathi cinema have been particularly influential in challenging caste stereotypes. Filmmakers from these regions have created films that engage with caste-based discrimination and the struggles of marginalized communities. These films often present a more authentic, nuanced portrayal of Dalit and Adivasi experiences, moving beyond the victimization narrative to explore themes of agency, resistance, and identity.

For example, Nagraj Manjule’s Fandry (2013) portrays the life of a Dalit boy in rural Maharashtra who faces the harsh realities of caste discrimination. The film critiques the normalization of caste-based violence and the internalized casteism that exists within Dalit communities. Similarly, Tamil cinema has seen the rise of directors like Pa. Ranjith, whose work challenges caste hierarchies and provides a platform for Dalit voices to be heard.

Resistance to caste and gender oppression in India is taking many forms, from digital activism to Dalit feminism to alternative cinema. These counter-narratives provide a platform for marginalized communities to challenge dominant caste and gender stereotypes, assert their identities, and demand justice. The rise of digital media has allowed Dalit voices to gain visibility, while Dalit feminism has brought attention to the unique struggles of Dalit women. Alternative cinema has offered a space for marginalized filmmakers to tell their own stories, countering the stereotypes of mainstream media. Together, these movements are reshaping public discourse around caste and gender and contributing to a more inclusive and just society.

V. CHALLENGES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Despite the growing momentum of resistance movements against caste and gender stereotypes in media, several challenges continue to hinder genuine progress. From corporate control over mainstream media to the digital harassment of Dalit activists, systemic barriers persist that reinforce caste hierarchies and prevent marginalized voices from gaining equal representation. This section outlines the key challenges faced by Dalit and marginalized communities in media representation and proposes future directions to create a more inclusive and equitable media landscape.

A. Challenges in Reshaping Media Narratives

1) Corporate Control Over Media

The ownership and control of mainstream media in India are overwhelmingly dominated by upper-caste elites. This structural issue directly influences how caste and gender issues are reported, framed, or ignored.

• Upper-Caste Monopoly: A study by the Oxfam India-Newslaundry Media Ownership Report (2022) revealed that upper-caste individuals own a significant majority of television networks, newspapers, and digital media outlets. This concentration of power results in editorial biases that often dilute or erase caste-related issues.
• Limited Space for Dalit Journalists: Dalits constitute nearly 16.6% of India's population, but their representation in journalism is abysmally low. A 2019 study by the Media Rumble found that less than 5% of media decision-makers in India belong to Dalit, Bahujan, or Adivasi communities.
• Caste-Erasure in News Reporting: Even when caste-based atrocities are reported, they are often framed as isolated criminal incidents rather than systemic injustices. For example, coverage of incidents like the Hathras rape case (2020) initially downplayed caste dynamics, framing the case primarily as an act of sexual violence rather than a caste-based atrocity.

2) Online Casteism and Troll Culture

While social media has provided Dalits and marginalized communities with a platform to voice their concerns, it has also exposed them to intense online harassment.

• Targeted Attacks on Dalit Activists: Prominent Dalit voices such as Dalit Camera, Meena Kandasamy, and Thenmozhi Soundararajan regularly face online abuse, including death threats, doxxing, and cyberbullying from caste supremacist groups.
• Misuse of Social Media Algorithms: Social media platforms often fail to address caste-based hate speech adequately. The invisibilization of caste-related discourse due to algorithmic bias makes it harder for Dalit activists to gain visibility. A 2021 report by Amnesty International found that caste-based slurs and derogatory content directed at Dalits are frequently left unmoderated by tech companies.
• Hashtag Hijacking: Troll groups often hijack Dalit-led hashtag movements like #DalitLivesMatter to dilute their impact by posting anti-reservation sentiments or deflecting attention to other unrelated issues.

3) Co-option of Dalit Narratives

Another significant challenge is the appropriation and tokenization of Dalit narratives by mainstream media without authentic engagement.

• Symbolic Representation Without Structural Change: Mainstream media often includes Dalit representation in a tokenistic manner. For instance, hiring a few Dalit journalists or showcasing Dalit-themed films does not automatically lead to systemic change unless decision-making power is also transferred.
• Bollywood’s Caste-Washing: Many Bollywood films that claim to highlight caste oppression are directed and produced by upper-caste individuals who fail to represent Dalit experiences authentically. Films like Article 15 (2019) received criticism for focusing on an upper-caste savior rather than Dalit agency.
• Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Without Real Change: Media companies often fund Dalit-related programs or initiatives as part of CSR efforts, but these efforts rarely lead to significant structural changes within the organization’s hiring practices or editorial policies.

B. Future Directions for an Inclusive Media Landscape

1) Policy-Level Changes: Affirmative Action in Media Industries

One of the most effective ways to ensure equitable representation is through policy interventions and affirmative action measures.

• Reservation in Media Jobs: Implementing caste-based reservations for Dalits in journalism schools, newsrooms, and film industries can ensure greater representation.
• Diversity Audits in Media Houses: Government bodies or independent organizations should conduct regular diversity audits of media organizations to assess the caste composition of employees and leadership.
• Inclusion of Caste in Media Ethics Guidelines: Regulatory bodies like the Press Council of India should mandate explicit guidelines for reporting on caste issues, ensuring caste-sensitive language and ethical standards in journalism.

2) Dalit Media Ownership: Strengthening Independent Dalit-Led Media

For genuine change, it is essential to support Dalit-led media initiatives and increase independent ownership of media platforms by marginalized communities.

• Funding for Dalit Startups in Media: The government and private organizations should invest in Dalit-led media startups and alternative journalism platforms.
• Expansion of Existing Dalit Media Networks: Outlets like Dalit Camera, The Caravan, and Dalit Times have already established themselves as important voices in countering mainstream narratives. These platforms need greater institutional and financial support to expand their reach.
• Encouraging Dalit Film Production Houses: Just as directors like Pa. Ranjith and Nagraj Manjule have reshaped regional cinema, more Dalit-led film production houses should be encouraged through grants and investment.

3) Media Literacy Programs: Challenging Casteist and Sexist Media Content

Educating both content creators and audiences about caste and gender biases in media can help change perceptions and promote more inclusive narratives.

• Curriculum Changes in Journalism Schools: Media education programs should incorporate courses on caste sensitivity, intersectionality, and ethical reporting of caste-based issues.
• Workshops and Public Awareness Campaigns: NGOs and Dalit organizations should conduct workshops for journalists, filmmakers, and media professionals to challenge casteist stereotypes and biases.
• Engaging Social Media Companies in Anti-Caste Policies: Advocacy efforts should push social media giants like Meta (Facebook), Twitter, and YouTube to enforce stricter policies against caste-based hate speech and misinformation.

The fight against caste and gender stereotypes in media is far from over. While digital platforms and independent media have empowered marginalized voices, systemic challenges such as corporate control, online casteism, and co-option of Dalit narratives persist. Moving forward, affirmative action in media industries, support for Dalit-led media ownership, and widespread media literacy programs will be crucial in dismantling caste hierarchies in media representation. Only through collective action and institutional reforms can India’s media landscape become truly inclusive and representative of its diverse population.

Conclusion

The representation of caste and gender in Indian media remains a critical area of inquiry, as mainstream narratives continue to reinforce structural inequalities through stereotypes, erasure, and biased storytelling. The intersection of caste and gender oppression is particularly evident in the ways Dalit and marginalized communities are depicted across films, television, news media, and digital platforms. However, in recent years, resistance movements and counter-narratives have emerged, challenging dominant media discourses and advocating for more authentic and equitable representations. This study has explored how caste and gender stereotypes persist in media, the mechanisms through which they are reinforced, and the various ways in which marginalized communities resist misrepresentation. By analyzing different forms of media—films, television, news reporting, and digital content—the research highlights both the challenges and the possibilities for transformative change.

References

Books [1] Ambedkar, B. R. (1936). Annihilation of Caste. Navayana. [2] Guru, G. (2009). Humiliation: Claims and Context. Oxford University Press. [3] Omvedt, G. (2006). Dalit Visions: The Anti-Caste Movement and the Construction of an Indian Identity. Orient Blackswan. [4] Rege, S. (2013). Against the Madness of Manu: B. R. Ambedkar’s Writings on Brahmanical Patriarchy. Navayana. [5] Thorat, S., & Newman, K. S. (2010). Blocked by Caste: Economic Discrimination in Modern India. Oxford University Press. Journal Articles [6] Chakravarti, U. (1993). \"Conceptualizing Brahmanical Patriarchy in Early India: Gender, Caste, Class and State.\" Economic and Political Weekly, 28(14), 579-585. [7] Kumar, A. (2016). \"Dalit Representation in Indian Cinema: A Critical Analysis.\" Journal of South Asian Studies, 4(1), 21-38. [8] Jodhka, S. (2012). \"Caste and Power: Analyzing Social Exclusion and Discrimination in Contemporary India.\" Sociological Bulletin, 61(1), 1-26. [9] Rao, S. (2019). \"Dalit Women and Media: A Study of Misrepresentation and Resistance.\" Feminist Media Studies, 19(3), 345-362. [10] Pandey, G. (2006). \"Caste in Indian Media: Between Silence and Representation.\" Economic and Political Weekly, 41(2), 129-135. Reports & Policy Documents [11] National Crime Records Bureau (2022). Crime in India Report. Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. [12] Press Council of India (2019). Report on Media Bias in Caste and Gender Representation. Government of India. [13] The UN Special Rapporteur on Minority Issues (2021). Caste-Based Discrimination in Media and Journalism. United Nations. [14] The Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (2019). Media and Caste: Representation, Bias, and Exclusion. CSDS Report. [15] Dalit Women’s Collective (2020). Media Narratives and the Dalit Woman: An Analytical Report. News & Media Articles [16] The Caravan. (2021). “How Caste Bias Shapes Newsrooms in India.” [17] The Wire. (2020). “Dalit Women and Media: Fighting Erasure and Misrepresentation.” [18] Scroll.in. (2019). “The Hathras Case and the Role of Media in Reporting Caste Violence.” [19] BBC News. (2022). “How Social Media is Reshaping Dalit Activism in India.” [20] Economic and Political Weekly. (2018). “Bollywood and the Erasure of Dalit Narratives.” Alternative Media & Digital Activism [21] Dalit Camera. (2021). “Documenting Caste and Gender in the Indian Media.” [22] The Blue Dawn. (2020). “Dalit Digital Resistance and the Role of Independent Media.” [23] All India Dalit Mahila Adhikar Manch (AIDMAM). (2021). Dalit Feminism and the Media: A Report. [24] Human Rights Watch. (2022). Caste, Gender, and Media Bias in India. [25] Digital Empowerment Foundation. (2020). Social Media and Caste-Based Discrimination in India.

Copyright

Copyright © 2025 Mr. Anuj Jalwal, Ms. Garima Kumawat. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.