The Impacts on Consumer Health from Dug Well Contamination - A Crucial Drinking Water Source

Abstract

Main objective of this review is to analyse potential sources of pollution, constituents, consumer health risks related to contaminated drinking water, and remediation strategies. Dug wells with poorly protected well mouth-covering or unlined wells are more susceptible to biological and chemical contamination. Physical irregularities in the lining and covering of the well act as a door to the entry of pollutants into the well. Residential, municipal, commercial, industrial, and agricultural activities can have an impact on ground water quality. Agriculture is one of the most common human activities that have an impact on both surface and groundwater. Water resource quality is determined by geological characteristics such as soil kinds, topography slope, plant roots, water dissolution with minerals/soils, and the radioactive decay of elements. Septic tanks, pit latrines, and sewer systems are the main source of faecal contamination in the groundwater system. Pesticides, fertilisers, and livestock dung frequently introduce heavy metals into aquifers, posing a direct hazard to human health. Waterborne diseases such as diarrhoea, cholera, syphilis, and typhoid have been linked to a lack of adequate water. Drinking water containing various anions and heavy metals, such as Cd, Cr, Co, Hg, Ni, Pb, Zn, and others, has a substantial negative impact on human health. Drinking water treatment removes impurities from the source water, making it safe to drink. The long-term goal of decontamination is to detect and remove hazardous compounds from water cost-effectively and reliably.

Introduction

I. INTRODUCTION

A pillar of civilization and a necessity for public health is an adequate supply of safe water (Gunnarsdottir et al.,2020). Groundwater has been regarded as a reliable source of water for many purposes since prehistoric times, and it is thought to be less resistant to quality (physical and bacteriological) deterioration since it is sealed within the vadose zone envelope. As civilization progressed, human density rose, urbanisation and industry spread, and organised farming expanded rapidly, water quality began to deteriorate. Groundwater is gaining a lot of attention because it has become a key resource for a country's socio-economic development. As a material basis, water resource plays a critical role in the development of the national economy, the geographical distribution of industry, the enhancement of resident living quality, and the security of the regional ecological environment for human survival (Marston and Cai 2016).

There are various sorts of groundwater resources that humans use which include dug wells, boreholes, springs and so on. Boreholes are more difficult to construct and maintain than hand-dug wells, hence hand-dug wells are widespread in the residences of middle and low-income earner's life (Oyebode et al., 2015).

The United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) on attaining universal and equitable access to potable water, appropriate sanitation, and hygiene by 2030 were adopted in 2015 (UN General Assembly 2015). Inadequate access to clean water and sanitation is one of the most persistent issues plaguing people all over the world. Although water is essential for human life, well-being, food security, and socioeconomic growth, approximately half of the world's population, in both developed and developing countries, suffers from water contamination (Li et al., 2021). Water quality can be considered as a measure of a water's fitness for a specific purpose based on selected physical, chemical, and biological qualities based on standards. Surface water sources are easily contaminated by surface processes. Agricultural, mining, and industrial activity, as well as indiscriminate garbage disposal, are examples of surface processes (Konwea & Ajayi 2021). The precautionary principle, as well as increased consumer knowledge of these risks, has prompted worldwide and national health organisations, as well as government authorities, to regulate and update drinking water quality requirements regularly (Dettori et al., 2022). Human health is dependent on the regular availability of safe drinking water, but wells and boreholes are scarce in many developing countries.

II.   DUG WELL CONTAMINATION

Due to the rapid growth in world population, scarcity of groundwater is a major concern. Dug well water is mostly used as a drinking water source as it is less polluted water than surface water. Dug wells are more susceptible to the surroundings when they have sources of pollutants like septic tanks adjacent to them. Pollutants can be absorbed by shallow groundwater found in dug wells. Dug wells with poorly protected well mouth-covering or unlined wells are more susceptible to biological and chemical contamination (Pedley and Howard 1997; Howard et al., 2003). The site selection or the construction phase of a well is very important as it can reduce the chance of contamination from surrounding sources. During the construction of a well, a potential source of contamination must be identified and put distance from the source as recommended by the international standards bureaus like WHO and other national standards bureaus. Maintenance and types of mouth casing, covering, internal casing, and surrounding pavements of wells are very important in maintaining the quality of water. Groundwater pollution is also caused by a shortage of suitable land for constructing septic tanks, allowing pollutants to flow with rains to bodies of water in densely populated areas (Putra 2018). The water quality of the well is impacted by a poorly managed landfill site (Finmeta et al., 2020; Luo et al., 2019)

However, due to physical, chemical, and bacteriological pollution, drilled wells pose a significant risk. Physical irregularities in the lining and covering of the well act as a door to the entry of pollutants into the well. Changes in colour, taste, odour and presence of debris will decrease the quality of water which will turn unfit for drinking purposes. Chemical contaminants such as heavy metals emitted by industries have become one of the most dangerous pollutants in groundwater (Kistan et al.,2017). Waterborne pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminthic parasites, which offer broad health concerns when consuming untreated or inadequately treated water, are the main concern of biological contamination. These contaminants are deposited in the well water due to seepage of surface water, such as rains (Wolo et al.,2020). Contaminated water can lead to bacterial infections, epidemics, and major health problems, as well as social and economic consequences (Emmanual et al., 2009).

Apart from human activity, slope, geological strata, and rainfall all have an impact on water quality (Aryasa et al.,2020). Total dissolved solids (TDS) Of well water is mainly due to rock weathering as well as anthropogenic activities. Even though it is not harmful, a high TDS value can cause water turbidity, which means that the photosynthesis process in water bodies is slowed (Wolo et al., 2020). Due to the rise in turbidity of the water, rapid growth in pathogens can be found (Weller et al., 2020). Dug well water or groundwater is less likely to be contaminated than surface water, so it is commonly used as drinking water. Contamination of drinking water with various chemicals and heavy metals emitted from various anthropogenic sources has become a global concern (Rapant and Krcmova 2007) Physical, chemical, and bacteriological parameters must be met before drinking water can be consumed. Drinking water that does not meet quality requirements might lead to health concerns.

A. Variations in the Quality of Groundwater with Respect to Depth

The depth and type of well have an impact on groundwater degradation and contamination. Waste dumps, cemeteries, poorly maintained or abandoned wells, and nearby septic tanks are all potential sources of contamination (Jimmy et al., 2013). Studies on the relationship between groundwater quality and depth variation from Delhi, India demonstrate a negative correlation on chemical indicators, which confirms the high salinity of water that is present at lower depths. While population areas had the lowest depth of water from ground level among all the analysed land covers, protected forest area sites had water available at highest depth due to mining activities. Yamuna River is a source of recharge, hence there is reduced depth of groundwater in habitation area sites as a result of high-water extraction (Gupta & Sarma 2013). According to a conducted ground water studies carried out by a team of researchers from Punjab who were pleased with their sampling results during the installation of observation wells, the groundwater quality in the 45–60 m depth range is classified as fit in 53 percent of cases and marginal to unfit in the remaining 47 percent on the basis of electrical conductivity and residual sodium carbonate (Chopra & Krishan 2014). Safer groundwater salinity levels were observed in deep bore wells (>20 m) compared shallow bore wells (20 m), according to another study from groundwater salinity fluctuations at spatiotemporal, depth levels in the Rohtak district, Haryana, India (Kishore et al., 2022). High groundwater salinity affects roughly 1.1 billion people and about 16 percent of the world's geographical area. A common problem in semi-arid and dry areas, heavily irrigated farmland, and groundwater drawn from shallow or intermediate depths is groundwater salinity (Li et al., 2020).

III. SOURCES AND ELEMENTS OF GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION

Groundwater is a major supply of drinking water around the world, contamination by inorganic and organic chemicals, and biological and radiological elements of natural or anthropogenic origin is an important global environmental issue (Rapant and Krcmova 2007). The degradation of groundwater quality can be induced in one of two ways: 

Anthropogenic and geogenic. The contamination is referred to as anthropogenic when the primary source and cause of groundwater quality decline is linked to human activities such as municipal, industrial, and agricultural. Those that develop naturally, mostly as a result of rock-water contact is called geogenic.

A. Geogenic Contaminants

The term "geogenic pollution" refers to naturally occurring high concentrations of specific elements in groundwater that have a deleterious impact on human health. Water resource quality is determined by geological characteristics such as soil kinds, topography slope, plant roots, water dissolution with minerals/soils, and the radioactive decay of elements (Schoonover & Crim 2015). Geogenic contamination of groundwater can result from geochemical characteristics of the aquifer material, such as a high concentration of contaminant in the rock matrix dissolved during rock-water interaction, or environmental conditions, such as a wide range of climatic conditions, aquifer redox conditions, and the groundwater flow congestion, all of which make it easier for the contaminant to enter the aqueous phase. Climate change and natural disasters like floods, droughts, and windstorms are all short-term risks that cause infrastructure damage and service disruption to the groundwater system (Howard et al. 2016). The chemical components of igneous and sedimentary rocks are most likely to leak from worn and fractured zones into groundwater and surface water through a variety of processes if anthropogenic pollution is not taken into account. Many sources of water cannot be used for drinking as the amount of leached material rises. The fluoride contamination process in the weathered and fractured zones of hard-rock aquifers is influenced by variations in local and regional groundwater circulation (Nakayama et al., 2022).

B. Anthropogenic Contaminants

The degradation of groundwater can be by anthropogenic activity such as agricultural practices and waste disposal as well as chemical compounds from various industries. In the anthropogenic environment, the susceptibility of groundwater aquifers and the risk of pollution increases from the complex interplay of the hydrological system's natural dynamics with physical changes to the land surface, human-caused waste discharge, and water resource exploitation (Li et al., 2018). Through topography changes, artificial water bodies development, river channelling, surface sealing, and changes in surface ruggedness, physical landscape changes increase the vulnerability of groundwater systems (Lyon et al., 2011). Aside from changes in land use and land cover, the anthropogenic activity includes the widespread use of synthetic and natural chemical compounds (pesticides and fertilisers) (Bellin et al., 2020). ).  Organic compounds can enter community drinking water supplies from a variety of point and non-point sources, including agricultural runoff, artificial recharge, and wastewater treatment plant effluents. Several organic compounds have been found in community drinking water sources around the world recently. Organic compounds such as carbamazepine, atrazine, caffeine, and metolachlor are regularly found in drinking water (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2022).

C. Pesticides & Fertilizers

Agriculture is one of the most common human activities that have an impact on both surface and groundwater. Groundwater quality is critical for drinking water production, but pesticide contamination is rapidly threatening groundwater resources. Pesticides and fertilisers are an important part of crop production around the world, yet their use throws potable water at risk. Pesticides used in excess to manage pests and weeds contaminate bodies of water and cause health hazards for consumers (Kalantary et al., 2022). Pesticide concentrations in drinking water over 0.1 g/L violate the Drinking Water Directive's rules and pose a major health risk. (Cosgrove et al., 2019).

Arsenic is a known carcinogen that is used as lead-arsenate (PbHAsO4) pesticides in fruit tree orchards in different parts of the world. The most common source of arsenic in wells is assumed to be naturally occurring and linked to both bedrock mineralogy and groundwater redox conditions (Gross & Brown, 2020; Yang et al., 2015). However, anthropogenic arsenic has a long history of extensive use in agriculture, which could contribute to arsenic in groundwater (Higgins et al., 2022). Meanwhile, many commonly used compounds in agriculture are persistent, mobile, and soluble in aquifer systems, posing a threat to human health and the environment (Chaudhary 2020).

Fertilizer components that aren't properly regulated can end up in water bodies through runoff or leaching (Smith & Siciliano 2015). Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are the two principal fertiliser chemicals that are most dangerous to water resources (P). Nitrate poisoning of water bodies can be caused by improper or excessive fertiliser use. Groundwater contamination with fluoride is a global problem. Fluoride pollution of water resources is a global concern since excessive fluoride in drinking water poses major health hazards (Nizam et al., 2022).

D. Faecal Contamination

The concentration of faecal indicator microorganisms has been proposed as a health risk indicator (Franziska et al.,2021). The tendency of downstream urbanisation, the shortest distance between water sources and pit latrines/sewerage systems, raw sewage deep well injection and increased urban, pastures and agricultural runoffs containing human and animal excreta were all potential sources of contamination (Khan et al., 2018). Biological pollutants from nearby sources, such as toilets, underground damaged sewerage pipes, seepage/percolation from drainage systems, and low wastewater treatment plant efficiency, typically cause contamination, which leads to serious disease (Khalid et al., 2011). Septic tanks, pit latrines, and sewer systems are the main source of faecal contamination in the groundwater system. A septic tank is a type of subterranean sedimentation tank that is used to treat wastewater through biological breakdown and drainage. Many house owners who also acquire their drinking water from adjacent private wells employ septic tanks as a wastewater treatment alternative. These septic tanks may fail and leak profusely, causing environmental harm and poisoning groundwater (Ojo 2022). Human-specific pathogens such as Shigella, Norovirus, hepatitis A virus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Cryptosporidium, which primarily infect and proliferate in the gastrointestinal tract of the host, can be found in groundwater utilised for daily life (Uyttendaele et al.,2015; Callejon et al.,2015). The presence of E. coli in drinking water implies that the water sources have been contaminated by the faeces of humans or other warm-blooded animals, and it also suggests the presence of pathogenic organisms. (Pote et al., 2009). Water, on the other hand, serves as a passive carrier for a variety of organisms that can cause illness in humans, including viruses, protozoa, and bacteria. (Ali et al., 2017, Cui et al., 2017). 

E. Heavy Metals

High concentrations of heavy metals contamination from anthropogenic (e.g., mining, wastewater, irrigation, industry, and agriculture) and natural resources (e.g., erosion of bedrocks and volcanic eruptions processes) harm groundwater quality (Mirzabeygi et al.,2017). Heavy metal pollution of groundwater, defined as metals with concentrations more than 5 g/cm3, is a difficult and pressing issue (Liu et al.,2021; Yan et al.,2019). Agricultural activities are one of the main sources of heavy metal pollution in groundwater. Heavy metals infiltrate the soil in agricultural areas when huge amounts of fertiliser, insecticides, and other agricultural production chemicals are utilised (Wu et al., 2020). Leaching and osmosis can allow heavy metals in the soil to enter groundwater. Heavy metals in excess can be harmful to the environment and human health (Dehghani et al., 2022). Pesticides, fertilisers, and livestock dung frequently introduce heavy metals into aquifers, posing a direct hazard to human health (Li et al., 2020; Li et al.,2018). Heavy metals from a variety of sources find their way into groundwaters like Manganese is found in the groundwater via sewage sludge and municipal wastewater discharges (WHO, 2004). Likely Vehicle exhausts, pesticides, engine leakage, and Cadmium-containing dust are all possible sources of Cadmium in water (Malassa et al., 2014). Leakage, poor storage, and inappropriate industrial waste disposal techniques have all been shown to release Cr into the environment (Ojo 2022). Fe (iron) can enter the groundwater system through coagulating chemicals used in water treatment facilities and when steel, cast iron, and galvanised iron pipes are used for water distribution, and it can be fatal if taken in concentrations of 200 to 250 mg/kg of body weight (WHO, 2003b).

IV. CONSUMER HEALTH RISK ON WATER QUALITY

Water's physical, chemical, biological, and aesthetic features are used to describe its quality and determine its suitability for a range of purposes, including human health and aquatic environment protection. (Luvhimbi et al.,2022). Water quality has been linked to health outcomes across the world contamination of groundwater can harm human health (Peiyui et al., 2021). Mostly drinking water is supplied through pipelines from a treatment plant. Public water supply is very sensitive due to its long channel distribution. Physical loads, microbiological loads, and nutrient loads all enter the distribution system with treated drinking water (Liu et al., 2014; Prest et al., 2016).

Despite this, inadvertent waterborne illness outbreaks continue to occur in affluent communities due to a lack of awareness of the possible risks and insufficient training of workers and management working on drinking water systems (Ashbolt 2015). Even with well-maintained drinking-water treatment systems, there is growing worried that aged drinking water distribution systems are more susceptible to mains breaks/repairs and associated pressure losses, which could result in pathogen incursion scenarios. (Ebacher et al., 2012).

Toxic metal poisoning in drinking water poses a health concern to people and has been linked to a variety of chronic health problems, including cancer, infertility, and organ damage (Emokpae and Oyakhire 2020). The water of poor quality can cause bone loss, tooth corrosion, anaemia, and kidney disease due to the presence of very toxic heavy metal metals and their accumulation in the kidneys (Maru et al.,2018). Chromium (Cr) ingestion below 0.1 mg/L may provide some health benefits, but excessive Chromium consumption might result in diarrhoea, stomach and intestinal bleeding, cramping, and liver and kidney damage. (WHO, 2003a). Cadmium (Cd) poisoning can cause renal, bone, and lung damage if you are exposed to too much of it. Similarly, drinking Cd-contaminated water can cause metal poisoning and hormonal abnormalities, which can lead to more serious problems like kidney failure and cancer (Nta et al., 2020).

People who drink water with high levels of Mn for lengthy periods may lose their memory and motor skills. In particular, infants who drink water containing high levels of Mn may suffer educational and behavioural issues (WQP, 2021). Although zinc is an essential vitamin for human growth and development, it can produce stomach cramps, nausea, and vomiting when consumed in large quantities (Damodharan, 2013).

In rural areas of most developing countries, where water supplies are communally shared, bacterial contamination of drinking water is a major contributor to water-borne disorders. The US Environmental Protection Agency has identified over 500 waterborne pathogens of potential concern in drinking water (EPA). Between 2030 and 2050, the World Health Organization (WHO) forecasts that climate change would cause an additional 48,000 deaths from diarrhoea (WHO, 2014), with 60 per cent of diarrhoea deaths in low- and middle-income countries now related to inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene. (Prüss-Ustün et al. 2019). Bacteria and viruses can be found in human sewage and animal waste all over the surface of our globe. People who drink water contaminated with germs may get stomach problems and infections. In developing nations, faecal contamination of water with the hepatitis A and E viruses (HAV and HEV) is a major public health concern (Arora et al., 2013). Diarrhoea is the most common sickness caused by ingesting pathogen-contaminated water via the faecal-oral pathway (WHO). One of the most prevalent diseases affecting people is acute gastroenteritis, which has a higher morbidity and mortality rate in young children and the elderly than in any other age group (Jain & Jain 2014).

Due to poor personal hygiene, hazardous water supplies, and poor sanitation, giardiasis is more common among residents in densely crowded locations like slums and prisons (Roshidi et al., 2021). Rainfall and snowmelt run-off can contaminate private wells by washing bacteria into the system or seeping beneath. Microorganisms can be found in water wells due to waste leakage from subterranean storage tanks and effluent from septic leach fields reaching a water source (USEPA). The presence of coliform bacteria in drinking water, specifically E. coli (a kind of coliform bacteria), signals that the water may include pathogens that cause diarrhoea, vomiting, cramps, nausea, headaches, fever, exhaustion, and even death.

Pathogens in drinking water are more likely to affect infants, children, the elderly, and persons with compromised immune systems (Gwimbi et al., 2019). Vibrio cholerae was discovered to be present in 8 out of 11 deep ground water samples taken from various areas in Central India (Tamrakar et al.,2009). Particularly in small communities and underdeveloped nations, where groundwater is frequently the preferred supply of drinking water, the microbial pollution of groundwater has deep and severe repercussions for public health. A major problem for protecting public health and groundwater purity is the excreta's disposal through land-based systems. In peri-urban settings, using ineffective sanitation and water delivery methods puts the public's health at serious and ongoing risk. (Pedley & howard 1997).

Table ?

Microbes and their associated waterborne disease

Chemical contaminants in water, such as fluoride, nitrates, arsenic, lead, and other heavy metals, can have negative health impacts in addition to microbial pollution (Pruss-Ustun et al. 2008). Most of the components present in the water are essential but it is harmful when it is taken in excess. The most significant biological function of nitrite is its role in the conversion of normal haemoglobin to methaemoglobin, which is incapable of transporting oxygen to the tissues. Recently, nitrates have drawn a lot of interest from researchers because of their long history of contaminating surface and groundwater systems with pollutants from the environment. Nitrates that are released into water bodies in greater than necessary amounts have accumulative effects on other living things, and human health as they move up the food chain (Singh et al.,2022). The most common human health hazard connected with nitrate ingestion is methemoglobinemia caused by nitrate-derived nitrite. Higher chloride levels in water may not be harmful to human health, but the effect is dependent on the related cation, such as sodium, calcium, magnesium, and potassium (Annan et al.,2022). Sulphate concentrations greater than 250 mg/l, according to the WHO, should be notified to health authorities since they might cause catharsis, dehydration, and gastrointestinal and digestive disorders (WHO, 2010). Organic compounds like carbamazepine, atrazine, and caffeine, are known to pose a severe risk to human health in these contaminated water ingesting communities (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2022)Dental fluorosis, skeletal fluorosis, arthritis, bone damage, osteoporosis, muscular damage, weariness, joint-related difficulties, and chronicle issues can all be caused by high levels of fluoride ions in drinking water (Solanki et al., 2022). Chronic exposure to arsenic harms several organ systems and has been linked to diabetes, hypertension, peripheral blood vessel problems, skin, bladder, kidney, and lung malignancies among other cancers (Xu et al.,2020). Studies by (Pinchoff et al.,2022) discovered a direct link between arsenic, Recurrent pregnancy loss and infertility.

V. DRINKING WATER REMEDIATION

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), infectious diseases linked to contaminated water and poor sanitation are a leading cause of death and disease in both low- and middle-income nations, particularly among children under the age of five (Mills & Cumming 2016). Industrial pollution, agricultural residue, and untreated wastewater threaten the quality of useable water. Groundwater consumption and well drilling in unsuitable conditions raise the risk of contamination, which can be caused by anthropogenic or natural activity. Due to a lack of groundwater quality monitoring and rules governing well drilling, the population consumes water that has not been properly treated. Water consumption without sufficient quality control is a public health concern since it is frequently used as a vehicle for disease transmission (Maran et al., 2016).  Groundwater is found in underground geological strata, clean-up is difficult and expensive once it has been contaminated (Wang et al.,2020) Drinking water treatment removes impurities from the source water, making it safe to drink.

Different methods and their combinations can be utilised for drinking water production depending on the contaminants present. The long-term goal of decontamination is to detect and remove hazardous compounds from water cost-effectively and reliably. Arsenic, heavy metals, halogenated aromatics, nitrosamines, nitrates, phosphates, and other widely spread compounds are known to affect humans and the environment. One overarching goal for delivering safe water is to disinfect water from traditional and emerging pathogens in a cost-effective and resilient manner, without causing additional problems as a result of the disinfection process. Contamination of groundwater by residual organic micropollutants such as pesticide residues poses a danger to drinking water quality. Activated carbon block filters for removing chemical pollutants from well water have also been tested in prior studies. Microbial pollutants cannot be eliminated by activated carbon block filters (Mulhern et al.,2021). Bioaugmentation with specialised pollutant-degrading bacteria is one technique to treat drinking water containing micropollutants. Rapid sand filters are reported to have a large variety of bacteria that may be able to digest some organic micropollutants.

Reverse osmosis (RO) is a well-known membrane separation process for creating clean water by rejecting and concentrating organic micropollutants such as pesticide residues and inorganic nutrients in a lower volume 'trash' stream (Fini et al., 2020). (Schostag et al.,2022). A particularly promising technique for cleaning up organically-polluted water is cold plasma (Aggelopoulos 2022). Biopolymers are adsorbents in the removal of environmental pollutants. Biopolymers are appealing environmentally friendly materials for water treatment systems because they are renewable, biocompatible, and biodegradable (Lustenberger et al., 2022). Groundwater pollution levels must be predicted and monitored on a regular and ongoing basis.

VI. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Dr. M. Muniasamy assisted for the conceptualisation and proof reading of the article and Anupama Prakash provided language help.

Conclusion

Groundwater has been regarded as a reliable source of water for various purposes because it is sealed within the vadose zone envelope of the earth. People in lower-income communities in developing countries drink directly from groundwater sources, without any treatment or assessment of the water\'s purity. Researchers from all over the world have identified a variety of sources and materials that contaminate the groundwater resource. In the realm of remediation research and decontamination techniques, identifying potential sources of contamination is critical. Pollutants include microbes, heavy metals, chemicals, and other trace elements which originated from both geogenic and anthropogenic activities. Numerous sources of pollutants may provide chronic minor and major health risks to people of various ages. To avoid a pandemic of water-borne diseases, effective testing and monitoring by respected agencies, as well as well-planned policymaking, are essential.

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