Waste Control at Construction Project by Adopting Lean Management Tool for Quality Measurement Framework

Abstract

Lean manufacturing and lean construction have the same goals according to Paez et al. (2005): elimination of waste, cycle time reduction, and variability reduction. One of the ways of reaching the goals of lean construction is flow according to Paez et al. (2005). When trying to attain flow in construction one need to realize that there are differences between manufacturing and construction, which may make it difficult to attain the same flow between different processes, attained within manufacturing (Koskela, 1992). These differences are certain construction peculiarities such as one-of-a-kind projects, site production, temporary organization and regulatory intervention, aspects more common with construction projects than manufacturing. According to Koskela (1992) however, the same production principles apply and there is room for improvement when it comes to flow in the construction industry. By using lean thinking and lean tools and adapting them to the construction industry this master\'s thesis purpose is to develop a tool to identify and measure waste, guide in which order waste should be reduced and by this enabling estimations of potential consequences that might occur by implementing a lean approach at a construction site. This is of interest in order to bridge the research gap between conceptual lean construction and research based on empirical studies.

Introduction

I. INTRODUCTION

The concept lean, originating from the Japanese car manufacture Toyota's production system and often called Lean Production is constantly under development. Since the lean concept was first introduce to the producing industry and the success was significant it has now evolved to other fields than car manufactures. Due to the dynamic business environment the original lean has transformed and is today merely one part of the whole lean concept. This section attempts to present the essence of the lean concept for the reader and this is of importance since it is this philosophy that the authors aim to introduce in the construction industry.

Lean as a concept has evolved beyond Lean Production and it continues to develop. Therefore, the development of lean has led to confusion with regards to what constitutes lean and what does not. Hines, Holwe & Rich (2004) have proposed a model covering the whole lean concept where two levels are distinguished: the strategic (Lean Thinking) and the operational (Lean Production). The customer-centered strategic thinking is applicable to every organization that provides customer value, but the shop floor tools are not. The distinction of these two levels is crucial for understanding lean as a whole in order to apply the right tools and strategies to provide customer value. However, Hines, Holwe and Rich (2004) state that much of the academic discussions concerning lean thinking still focuses on the shop-floor which demonstrates a rather limited understanding of what contemporary lean approaches are about. This lack of a holistic view might result in organizations missing the strategic aspect and assuming that quality, cost, and delivery is equal to customer value. This is a common mistake by organizations implementing lean (Liker, 2004) since if only a cost perspective is addressed and the customer-perceived value is overlooked might in the end lead to sub-optimization in the value chain (Hines, Holwe, & Rich, 2004). In other words, lean is about both increasing customer value and reducing waste, and the essence is to understand that these two are not the same. It is possible to increase customer value without reducing waste.

Lean construction is the application of lean manufacturing principles in the context of the construction industry. While the definition of lean manufacturing is quite clear, there is debate about what lean construction is. Many say they have been lean for a long time, e.g. using JIT delivery, long before the term Lean or Lean Construction was on every ones tongue. Many also associate lean more with partnering than the principles of lean manufacturing (Green & May, 2005). In his article, Koskela (1992) concluded that there was, both in construction and manufacturing, too little focus on processes and value.

His work has become the foundation of lean construction and in 1993 the 1st International Workshop on Lean Construction was held. Jørgensen and Emmitt (2008) also identify a few common elements between lean manufacturing and lean construction.

Focus on the elimination and reduction of waste.

• End customer focus in order to determine what value is and what waste is.
• Pull approach from a customer perspective
• Focus on processes and flows of processes
• System perspective

In order to further try to explain how construction can become lean, a seminar by Koskela (2008) is used. If construction is decomposed into tasks and each task is to be completed within a certain timeframe and budget two decision rules are given. If each task keeps its start and end date and if each task is kept within budget then the entire project is completed on schedule and within the set budget. Why is this then so difficult? That is because reality is almost never like it seems on paper. As with lean manufacturing, flow is the goal in order to have the same average output each week or day. In a real project however there are always problems, which will mean large fluctuations in the output each day or period.

II. WASTE

Toyota identified seven major types of waste in manufacturing and business processes and Liker (2004) later came to include an additional form of waste, namely unused employee creativity. The eight forms of waste, or muda as it is called in Japanese is being displayed below. It might appear that a little waste does not matter but if all these kinds of waste are added up, in the long run, the inefficiency is apparent and could be substantial. It is usually the buzzword waste or muda that people identify lean with, however, it should be emphasized that only focusing on eliminating waste could hurt the productivity of people and the production system.

In an article by Hines and Rich (1997) these three classifications were explained where VA operations involve the conversion of processing of raw materials or semi-finished products through the use of manual labor, e.g. sub-assembly of parts, forging raw materials and painting. The second one is clarified as pure waste and involves unnecessary actions that should be eliminated completely, e.g. the eight types of waste such as waiting time and excess inventory. Thirdly and last is the NW-category, which is activities that may be wasteful, but necessary to perform in the operation procedure. In other words, they are necessary but non-value adding activities, e.g. unpacking deliveries.

In addition, when examining a process with the aim to detect waste and eliminate these, activities need to be classified in some way. Monden (1993) identified three different types of operations in an internal manufacturing context. The activities could be:

1. Value Adding (VA)
2. Non-value Adding (NVA)
3. Necessary Waste (NW)

III. LITERATURE

The Lean philosophy was born within the production environment of physical goods and is based on an industrial concept developed in Japan during the 1900s. The automaker Toyota is often ascribed as being the founder of Lean Production through its Toyota Production System (TPS) (Shingo, 1989). In the early 1960s a number of principles had been developed that later become known as the foundation of Lean Production (Womack, Jones, & Roos, 1990). However, it was not until in the 1980s that Toyota first caught the world's attention by designing cars faster, with more reliability and yet at a competitive cost compared to other car manufactures (Liker, 2004). The term Lean Production was coined by the International Motor Vehicle Program researcher Krafcik (1988) and was made popular by Womack, Jones & Roos (1990) in the critically acclaimed book The Machine That Changed the World. According to Womack, Jones & Roos (1990) Lean Production is best described as a method which combines the advantages of craft production and mass production, e.g. avoiding the high costs of craft production and avoiding the rigidity of mass production. Eriksson (2010) summed up much of what lean construction is in his article, including the six groups in which he classified the aspects of lean construction. In Paez et al. (2005) article they do not summarize the literature available on what lean construction is but rather focus on specific techniques that can be applied in order to reach the goals of lean construction.

Even though there are similarities in the industries they are of course also vastly different. According to Koskela (2008) there are two views on if TPS can be applied in construction. One is that there are no hindrances in transferring TPS, its methods and practices from manufacturing to construction. The Egan Report (Department of Environment Transportation and the Regions, 1998) is an example of this view. The Egan report states that Lean thinking describes the core principles underlying this system that can also be applied to every other business activity. The other view is that construction is fundamentally different and that the methods and practices need to be reinterpreted to fit the construction industry. The construction peculiarities mentioned by Koskela (2008) are one-of-a-kind production, site production and temporary project organization. Two alternatives for tackling these obstacles is either to eliminate them by standardizing products, using off-site production and long-term alliances or to accept them and develop new methods to overcome them. According to Koskela (2008) the ends for lean construction are the elimination of making-do and lead time reduction. The means for getting there is using the Last Planner system of production control and using practices and methods from lean production and lean product development when applicable.

1. Lean Construction Techniques: In their study, Paez et al. (2005) presented seven techniques within lean construction used to create flow and reach lean construction goals:
2. Concurrent Engineering: The execution of parallel development tasks in multi-disciplinary teams in order to obtain an optimal product keeping functionality, quality and productivity in mind.
3. Last Planner: Introduced by Ballard (2000) as a planning technique to deal with project variability in construction.
4. Daily Huddle Meetings: Last Planner manages operations while Daily Huddle Meetings is a way to follow-up the highly variable events that affect assignments.
5. Kanban System: Used to organize the flow of certain materials (consumables, personal protective equipment, hand tools, power tools, and consumables for power tools. This was shown to work by Arbulu, Ballard and Harper (2003).
6. Plan Condition and Work Environment in the Construction Industry (PCMAT): It is proposed by Saurin et al. (2002) as way of introducing health and safety into the project execution. Here safety practices are integrated into short-term planning.
7. Quality Management Tools: Integration of quality tools into lean construction. Marosszeky et al. (2002) propose a shift from conformance-based quality to quality at the source. This means a checklist, which is to be enforced by the workforce.
8. Visual Inspection: Increased speed of operation and reduction of the risk of choosing the wrong material through easy material identification. Schedules, milestones, or progress charts to enforce commitment to assignment completion. Increased communication between decision makers and executers.

IV. METHODOLOGY

The research process will be explorative (Holmström, Ketokivi, & Hameri, 2009), trying to improve the understanding of waste in construction and trying to adapt lean thinking and methods to the construction industry.

Following steps were taken:

1. Problem Formulation: A brief literature review on the construction industry and the field of lean will be conducted in order to acquire basic knowledge. This is necessary to structure, shape, and define the thesis problem area, purpose, and research question.
2. Literature Review: Literature assumed to be relevant for the subject under study will be reviewed and connections between the field of lean and the construction industry will be made. The literature review will covered key concepts within the fields of lean, construction, value stream mapping, waste, and other relevant topics.
3. Interviews: Sets of interviews will be conducted with different stakeholders participating. These stakeholders are actors within the construction business and people who possess knowledge and expertise in the lean or construction field.
4. Observations: Since observations are seen as a source of relatively objective information author will performed several field trips to construction sites. Data will be then collected from the interviews and the literature review. In addition, to gain lean experience within the construction industry the author will looked into a 5S-project that was being implemented at a construction site.
5. Development Of Tool: Findings from the literature review, interviews and observations will then combined and a tool will be developed to identify and measure waste, guide in how to prioritize eventual waste reduction activities and by this enabling estimation of potential consequences that might occur if lean is implemented.
6. Validation: Validation tool will be then from available literatures.

V. PROBLEM AREA

Lean was not applied to construction until 1992, with Lauri Koskela stating the possibility of using the new production philosophy in construction (Koskela, 1992). Since then the theoretical area of lean construction has grown from a simple idea of using lean manufacturing principles into many elements linked more specifically to construction. The Lean Construction Institute (2007) defines lean construction as “a production management-based approach to project delivery”. Another definition is that lean construction is the application of the lean production philosophy, with the current form of production and project management focusing on activities while ignoring flow and value

VI. OBSERVATION OF A 5S PROJECT AT A CONSTRUCTION SITE

When conducting the interviews with the Practitioners, visits were made at different construction sites. From these visits many observations were made, for example the authors got the unique possibility to experience a start-up lean construction program where the lean tool 5S was in the process of being implemented.

As can be seen in the below figures, differences are significant and the construction workers at the construction site were very positive towards this start-up. 

VII. OBSERVATIONS MADE DURING VSM STUDIES

In addition, other site visits have been made where VSMs have been conducted resulting in a number of observations. Several different construction workers have been followed during a whole day or a half day.

The above table shows VSM data.

VIII. VSM ANALYSIS

If all the VSM studies are summarized an aggregated result will be given. Figure 6.2 shows roughly 39% of the workers' time at the construction site is spent on value adding activities that need to be optimized while 38% of the time is non-value adding activities which need to be eliminated. There is also necessary waste accounting for 22%, which needs to be minimized. These results may vary compared to other studies. Josephson and Saukkoriipi (2005) did their own study which gave results that were fairly similar in terms of non-value adding activities. However, in their study, 17.5% was recognized as value adding, roughly 45% as necessary waste and approximately 33% as non-value adding activities. The discrepancy in results concerning necessary waste and value adding activities stems. From different views on what actually is value-adding and what is necessary.

A.  Financial Implications

In the below table, the total cost of all construction projects that were undertaken by company during the period 2015 – 2018 is presented. It is observed that 25% of a construction project's cost is linked to cost of labors. In addition, as the VSMs have pointed out, 60% of the time does not add value for the customer. This would mean that:

25% of project cost labour cost×60% of workers time=15% of the project cost is money being wasted

This would mean that an immense amount of money is being spent on nothing at all in the construction industry every year.

???????B. Overview Of Interview

RQ I

RQ II

RQ III

RQ IV

RQ V

[X]     Responded          [  ]          Question Not Asked

Value Stream Mapping Method (VSM)

Conclusion

The industry struggles with inefficient processes leaving much to be desired. In order to meet this challenge the construction industry must become more efficient by using fewer resources. Small changes in the operational costs by reducing waste, which improves the efficiency, can make substantially changes in profit. Previous researchers have identified the problems of how the industry works today and pointed to possible solutions by using the lean philosophy and tools along with solutions that are part of what is known as lean construction. There has however, been relatively little research on case studies, research based on quantitative data or research making categorization of the types of waste that exist in construction. In order to help bridge this cap, this thesis\' academic contribution is to categorize waste in construction according to classifications more adapted to the construction industry rather than the generic waste categories originally developed from manufacturing. The new categorization of waste is called construction waste, where two new categories of waste, “Preparation” and “Breaks”, were added. In the VSM studies these two categories contributed a great deal to non-value adding work and necessary waste. This new categorization helps understand the main drivers of waste in the construction industry. In addition, this thesis practical contribution aimed to be, by posing five research questions, to design a Lean Construction Tool by using a lean thinking approach and applying and adapting lean tools to the construction industry. This Lean Construction Tool explains how to identify and measure waste through the use of a value stream mapping tool, interviews and observations. To fully understand the reason behind the waste, the tool recommends that Toyota\'s Practical Problem-Solving Process and/or an Ishikawa diagram is used to study the waste. Furthermore, the Lean Construction Tool aims to guide in what order waste should be reduced by suggesting the use of a Pareto Analysis and/or looking into appropriate KPIs which are useful in measuring the waste as well. By performing these just mentioned activities, estimations of economical and environmental consequences can be made. This will give the construction companies the possibility to work out countermeasures for the wastes in the form of an action proposal plan that will later be implemented. By using this Lean Construction Tool a company can gain a better understanding of the kinds of waste that exist in their construction processes. Furthermore, the tool can help companies to decide where change needs to begin by getting to the root cause of the problem thus facilitating prioritization of problem and avoiding sub-optimization. This could lead to improved efficiency of construction activities resulting in lower operational costs, increased profit margin and reduced environmental damages.

References

[1] Akintoye, A. (1995). Just-in-time application and implementation for building material management. Construction Management and Economics , 13 (2), 105-113. [2] Allway, M., & Corbett, S. (2002). Shifting to lean service: Stealing a page from manufacturers\' playbooks. Journal of Organizational Excellence , 21 (2), 45-54. [3] Andersson, P., & Ohlsson, H. (2007). Förbättringspotential för inköpsstrukturen i byggbranschen. Lund: Lund University. [4] Arbulu, R. J., Ballard, G., & Harper, N. (2003). Kanban in Construction. In Proceedings of the Annual Conference IGLC-11 (pp. 350-361). Seford: International Group for Lean Construction. [5] Arditi, D., & Mochtar, K. (2000). Trends in productivity improvement in the US construction industry. Construction Management and Economics , 18, 15-27. [6] Atkinson, R. (1999). Project management: cost, time and quality, two best guesses and a phenomenon, its time to accept other success criteria. International Journal of Project , 17 (6), 337-342. [7] Ballard, G. (2000 ??? June). The last planner system of production control. Birmingham, UK: University of Birmingham. [8] Ballard, G., & Howell, G. (1998). Shielding Production: Essential Step in Production Control. Journal of Construction Management & Engineering , 11-17. [9] Bankvall, L., Bygballe, L. E., Dubois, A., & Jahre, M. (2010). Inderdependence in supply chains and projects in construction. Supply Chain Management , 15 (5), 385-393. [10] Bergman, B., & Klefsjö, B. (2004). Quality, from customer needs to customer satisfaction. Studentlitteratur. [11] Bicheno, J. (1991). 34 for Quality. Buckingham: PICSIE Books. [12] Björklund, M., & Paulsson, U. (2003). Seminarieboken - att skriva, presentera och opponera. Lund: Studentlitteratur. [13] Black, J., & Miller, D. (2008). The Toyota Way to Healtcare Excellence. Chicago, Illinois, US: Health Administration Press. [14] British Quality Foundation. (2010). EFQM Excellence Model. Retrieved 2011 ??? 11-March from British Quality Foundation: http://www.bqf.org.uk/performance-improvement/about-efqm-excellence-model [15] Bryman, A. (2004). Social Research Methods. Gosport, Hampshire: Oxford University Press. [16] Camp, R. C. (1989). Benchmarking: The Search for Industry Best Practice that Lead to Superior Performance. Milwaukee: ASQC Quality Press. [17] Capper, R. (1998). A Project-by-Project Approach to Quality. Aldershot, England: Gower Publishing Limited. [18] Chakravorty, S. (2009). Process Improvement: Using Toyota\'s A3 Reports. The Quality Management Journal , 16 (4), 7-26. [19] Chan, A., & Chan, A. (2004). Key performance indicators for measuring construction success. Benchmarking: An International Journal , 11 (2), 203-221. [20] Clary, R., & Wandersee, J. (2010). Fishbone Diagrams: Organize Reading Content with a \"Bare Bones\" Strategy. Science Scope , 33 (9), pp. 31-37. [21] Condel, J. L., Sharbaugh, D. T., & Raab, S. S. (2004). Error-free pathology: applying lean production methods to anatomic pathodology. Clinics in Laboratory Medicine , 24 (4), 865-899. [22] Department of Environment Transportation and the Regions. (1998). Rethinking Construction. London. [23] Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions. (2000). KPI Report for the Minister for Construction. London: Crown Copyright. [24] Doloi, H. (2008). Application of AHP in improving construction productivity from a management perspective. Construction Management and Economics , 839-852. [25] Elfving, J. (2010, Mars 19). Lean construction - case Skanska. [26] Eriksson, P. E. (2010). Improving construction supply chain collaboration and performance: a lean construction pilot project. Suppl Chain Management: An International Journal , 394-403. [27] Fearne, A., & Fowler, N. (2006). Efficiency versus effectiveness in construction supply chains: the dangers of ‘lean’ thinking in isolation. Supply Chain Management: An international journal , 11 (4), 283-287. [28] Ferdows, K., MacHuca, J. A., & Lewis, M. A. (2004). Rapid-Fire Fulfillment. Harvard Business Review , 1-7. [29] Fortune. (2008 ??? 5-May). Fortune 500. Retrieved 2011 ??? 16-February from Fortune: http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2008/performers/industries/profits/ [30] Freeman, M., & Beale, P. (1992). Measuring Project Success. Project Management Journal, 23 (1), 8-17. [31] Gadde, L.-E., & Dubois, A. (2002). The construction industry as a loosely coupled system: implications for productivity and innovation. Construction Management and Economics , 20, 621-631. [32] Gaupta, P. (2005). The Six Sigma Performance Handbook. McGraw-Hill. [33] Gordon, P. (2001). Lean and Green: Profit for the workplace and the environment. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. [34] Government Offices of Sweden. (2011). Publications. Retrieved 2011 ??? 22-February from the [35] Government Offices of Sweden: http://www.regeringen.se/sb/d/108/action/browse/c/135/all/true [36] Graban, M. (2008). Lean Hospitals - Improving Quality, Patient Safety and Employee Satisfaction. New York: Productivity Press. [37] Green, S. D., & May, S. C. (2005). Lean construction: arenas of enactment, models of diffusion and the meaning of ‘leanness\'. Building Research and Information , 33 (6), 498-511. [38] Green, S. (1999). The Dark Side of Lean Construction: Exploitation and Ideology. Iris Tommelein\'s Proceedings of IGLC-7 (pp. 21-32). Berkeley: International Group for Lean Construction. [39] Green, S. (2002). The human resource management implications of lean construction: critical perspectives and conceptual chasms. Journal of Construction Research , 3 (1), 147-165. [40] Green, S. (1999). The missing arguments of lean construction. Construction Management and Economics , 17 (2), 133-137. [41] Hannagan, T. (2008). Management: Concepts & Practices. Harlow, England: Pearson Education Limited. [42] Hatmoko, J. U., & Scott, S. (2010). Simulating the impact of supply chain management practice on the performance of medium-sized building projects. Construction Management and Economics , 35-49. [43] Hines, P., & Rich, N. (1997). The Seven Value Stream Mapping Tools. International Journal of Operations & Production Management , 17 (1), 46-64. [44] Hines, P., Holwe, M., & Rich, N. (2004). Learning to evolve - a review of contemporary lean thinking. International Journal of Operations & Production Management , 24 (10), 994-1011. [45] Holmström, J., Ketokivi, M., & Hameri, A.-P. (2009). Bridging practice and theory: a design science approach. Decision Sciences , 40 (1), 65–87. [46] Howell, G., & Ballard, G. (1999). Bringing Light to The Dark Side of Lean Construction: A Response to Stuart Green. Iris Tommelein\'s Proceedings of IGLC-7 (pp. 33-38). Berkeley: International Group for Lean Construction. [47] Jörgensen, B., & Emmit, S. (2008). Lost in transition: the transfer of lean manufacturing to construction. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management , 15 (4), 383-398. [48] Josephson, P.-E., & Saukkoriipi, L. (2009). 31 rekommendationer för ökad lönsamhet i byggandet - Att minska slöseriet! Gothenburg: The Swedish Construction Federation. [49] Josephson, P.-E., & Saukkoriippi, L. (2005). Slöseri i byggproject: Behov av förändrat synsätt. Göteborg: FoU-Väst. [50] Kagioglou, M., & Cooper, R. A. (2001). Performance management in construction: a conceptual framework. Construction Management and Economics , 85-95. [51] King, A., & Lenox, M. (2001). Lean and Green? An empirical examination of the relationship between lean production and environmental performance. Production and Operations Management , 10 (3), 244-256. [52] Koskela, L. (1992). Application of the new production philosophy to construction. Center for Integrated Facility Engineering. Stanford University. [53] Koskela, L. (2008). Lean Construction. Retrieved 02 03, 2011, from University of Salford: http://www.scri.dev.salford.ac.uk/resources/uploads/File/LeanConstruction.pdf [54] Koskela, L. (1999). Management of production in construction: A theoretical view. I. Tommelein (Ed.), Proceedings of the Annual Conference (pp. 241-252). Selford: International Group for Lean Construction. [55] Koskela, L., & Huovila, P. (1997). On foundations of concurrent engineering. International Conference on Concurrent Engineering in Construction (pp. 22-32). London: The Institute of Structural Engineering. [56] Kotzab, H., Seuring, S., Müller, M., & Reiner, G. (2005). Research Methodologies in Supply CHain Management. Heidelberg: Physica-Verlag. [57] Krafcik, J. (1988). Triumph of the lean production system. MIT Sloan Management Review , 30 (1), 41-52. [58] Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews - an introduction to qualitative research interviewing. Saga Publications. [59] Lai, I. K., & Lam, F. K. (2010). Perception of various performance criteria by stalkholders in the construction sector in Hong Kong. Construction Management and Economics , 377-391. [60] Lasa, I. S., Laburu, C. O., & de Casto Vila, R. (2008). An evaluation of the value stream mapping tool. Business process management journal , 14 (1), 39-52. [61] Lean Construction Institute. (2007). Lean Construction Institute: What is Lean Construction. Retrieved Februari 17, 2011, from Lean Construction Institute: Lean Construction Institute: What is Lean Construction [62] Li, H., Lu, W., & Huang, T. (2009). Rethinking project management and exploring virtual design and construction as a potential solution. Construction Management and Economis , 363-371. [63] Li, M., & Yang, J. B. (2003). A decision model for self-assessment of business process based on the EFQM excellence model. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management , 20 (2), 163-187. [64] Lichtig, W. A. (2005). Ten Key Decisions to a Successful Construction Project - Choosing Something New: The Integrated Agreement for Lean Project Delivery. Sacramento, California: American Bar Association. [65] Liker, J. (2004). The Toyota Way. New York: McGraw-Hill. [66] Liker, J., & Meier, D. (2005). The Toyota Way Fieldbook. London: McGraw-Hill Professional. [67] Love, P. E., & Li, H. (2000). Quantifying the causes and costs of rework in construction. Construction Management and Economics , 18, 479-490. [68] Lutz, J., & Gabrielsson, E. (2002). Byggkommissionen - Byggsektorns struktur och utvecklingsbehov. Stockholm: Sveriges Byggindustrier. [69] Marosszeky, M., Thomas, R., Karim, K., Davis, S., & McGeorge, D. (2002). Quality [70] Management Tools for Lean Production:From Enforcement to Empowerment. Proceedings of the Annual Conference (pp. 87-99). Selford: Intenational Group for Lean Construction. [71] Modig, N. (2004). The Impact of Project Characteristics on Temporary Logistics Solutions. Göteborg, Sweden: Chalmers University of Technology. [72] Monden, Y. (1993). Toyota Production System: An Integrated Approach to Just-in-Time. Norcross, GA: Industrial Engineering and Managment Press. [73] Nam, C., & Tatum, C. (1988). Major characteristic of constructed products and resulting limitations of cosntruction technology. Construction Management and Economics , 133-148.

Copyright

Copyright © 2022 Mohini Khopade, Miss. Yogita Fulse. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.